C. Identity and citizenship

Citizenship

C1 Bloemraad, I. (2003). 'Achieving full citizenship: an institutional approach to the political incorporation of immigrants and refugees in the United States and Canada'. Abstract only. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 64(5), 1858-A.

Research focus/aims: The thesis focuses on how immigrants and refugees gain full citizenship.

Participants: Portuguese immigrants and Vietnamese refugees in Toronto and Boston.

Key findings/outcomes: Immigrants, as outsiders, must mobilise themselves to become politically incorporated, but mobilisation dynamics are nested within the broader political and social institutions of the receiving society. Newcomer settlement and diversity policies affect the process and outcome of political incorporation. Such policies create interpretative effects that shape immigrants' understanding of citizenship and provide material resources that can enhance newcomers' ability to mobilise by increasing organisational capacity and opportunities for leadership. Given Canadian policies of official multiculturalism and newcomer settlement, one could expect greater political incorporation by immigrants in Canada than in the United States.

Conversely, the existence of a US refugee resettlement policy means that there should be fewer cross-national differences among refugees, but greater differences in political incorporation between refugee and non-refugee populations in the United States. Three indicators of political incorporation - naturalisation, advocacy and immigrants' election to political office - show that these hypotheses are largely borne out. Problems of political incorporation might have less to do with immigrants than with their reception in the host country.

Recommendations: None in abstract.

Scope: Discusses four communities using 147 qualitative interviews, documentary materials from ethnic organisations and government, and US and Canadian Census data.

Country research undertaken in: US/Canada.

Keywords: citizenship; civic/political participation; host country/region: United States; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Vietnam; research methods: interviews; research methods: survey; migrants, including refugees.

C2 Fangen, K. (2006). 'Citizenship among young adult Somalis in Norway'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 19(1), 69-93.

Research focus/aims: The article explores young Somalis' citizenship in the sense of their civic activities on different geographic levels, and the interrelationship between civic activity, class ethnicity and age. The author draws on the concept of citizenship outlined by Conover (1995)^[4] as the fundamental relationship of a person to a political community that consists of a collection of individuals who are 'committed to dividing, exchanging and sharing social goods'.

Participants: Three Somalis living in Norway. The author had previously interviewed 50 Somalis living in Norway.

Key findings/outcomes: Findings are presented under a series of headings:

• Citizenship and youth - Similar to Hall et al. (2000),^[5] the author found that young people she interviewed made connection between the transition to adulthood and citizenship in the sense of becoming responsible.
• Citizenship and class - The author argues that, while everyone of age (and who are citizens) has the right to education, to work, to vote, to be members of organisations and so on, the opportunities are unequally distributed. Class is conceptualised as constituted by work position and economic position, as well as by cultural values of taste, language and lifestyle. Class is relevant both in terms of resulting in an unequal distribution of resources and also in the making of different cultures. The study found that the different class backgrounds of the individuals interviewed made them aspire and orient themselves differently in Norwegian society, while also seeming to lead them to different levels of civic participation.
• Citizenship and ethnicity - The author suggests that the question concerns how young people in exile conceive their sense of ethnicity and how it informs their citizenship role. The possible conflict between participation in immigrant organisations and the national paradigm of citizenship is mentioned.

The three case studies found that all had a Somali ethnic identity, but they differed as to whether they felt they belonged in Norway or Somalia and the groups towards which they directed their political responsibility (community, national or global). The author suggests that their 'sense of citizenship' also varied.

Before presenting more detailed findings from the case studies, background information is presented on the history of Somalis in Norway and on the continuing importance of the clan in and on Somali organisations in Norway. Through the case study material, five forms of citizenship roles are identified: clan-based citizenship roles; the bridge builder role; the involvement in majority society politics role; the rebuilding of homeland role; and the international role. One person may be involved in several of these roles. The author suggests that Somalis whose parents have higher levels of education and/or who have higher education themselves are less concerned with clan and may be more likely to participate in Norwegian state or international organisations.

The author found that participation in Somali organisations did not necessarily mean that there was weak citizenship with the majority culture. Those acting as bridge builders in relation to less integrated Somalis serve to help them function in the majority society. Being active in organisations also fosters a sense of wellbeing, which strengthens affiliation to the majority society instead of the opposite.

Recommendations: None.

Scope: Case studies of three Somalis - a man in his early 20s, a man in his 30s and a woman in her mid 20s - all three had been interviewed as part of an earlier sample of 50 Somalis living in Norway, and five who had returned to Somaliland.

Country research undertaken in: Norway.

Keywords: citizenship; civic/political participation; ethnic/cultural identity; education/training; children/youth; host country/region: Norway; source country/region: Somalia; research methods: interviews.

C3 Lange, C., Kamalkhani, Z. and Baldassar, L. (2007). 'Afghan Hazara refugees in Australia: constructing Australian citizens'. Social Identities, 13(1), 350.

Research focus/aims: This article explored the interactions occurring between volunteer English language tutors and Afghan Hazara refugees living in an Australian town and framed the discussion in terms of the extent to which the refugees were seen as new Australians/citizens.

Participants: Approximately 85 Hazara refugees from Afghanistan living in Albany, a small town in Western Australia, as well as their volunteer English language tutors and other residents of Albany.

Key findings/outcomes: The first part of the paper discusses the relationships between the Hazara and the tutors, and outlines how this relationship influenced the construction of Hazara as 'Australians'. Previous refugee research had found that it is common among both volunteer and paid refugee aid workers to (unwittingly) construct refugees as subordinates and to position them in inferior positions of power. The Hazara empowered themselves by:

• refusing to continue the English language lessons
• seeing the tutors as lonely people without a lot to do who needed the Hazara more than the Hazara needed them
• attending an immigrant association, specifically the Albany Community for Afghan Refugees (ACFAR).

The paper continues to discuss how advocacy groups (generally human rights groups) and the media sought to construct the Hazara in a positive light to help them become formal citizens.

Once the Hazara received formal, legal status, many of them chose to leave Albany. This upset many in Albany - particularly a local meat packing plant where many of the Hazara men worked. The assistant general manager of the company said, "It's disappointing, not only for the community, but because the company went out of their way to help them. We treated them like family."

Recommendations: No specific recommendations provided.

Scope: Participant observation.

Country research undertaken in: Australia.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; citizenship; social capital/networks; language acquisition/ESOL; host country/region: Australia; source country/region: Afghanistan; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

C4 Mortensen, A. (2008). Refugees as 'others': social and cultural citizenship rights for refugees in New Zealand health services. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Massey University, Albany, New Zealand. Retrieved on 5 January 2009 from http://muir.massey.ac.nz/bitstream/10179/631/1/02whole.pdf.

Research focus/aims: This thesis examines the interaction between refugee resettlement, integration and social policy in New Zealand in the context of theoretical debates about the nature of citizenship in receiving societies. As New Zealand's refugee policy focuses on those with high health and social needs, the research has focused primarily on the health system.

Participants: 28 healthcare providers in community, primary and secondary care sectors in the Auckland region.

Key findings/outcomes: Before presenting her findings on refugees and New Zealand's healthcare system, the author presents theoretical discussions about the nature of integration, integration models and the concept of citizenship. In her thesis, the author defines 'citizenship' as effective social, cultural and economic participation.

The author found that refugee groups are overlooked as social, cultural and linguistic citizens by New Zealand's health system. Her findings are discussed in five chapters, including a chapter that discusses how refugees fall into the 'other' category in ethnic data collection systems in healthcare and the implications of this. For example, refugees are not given priority in national initiatives to reduce inequalities, and regionally based health providers find it difficult to plan for and provide services for refugee groups within existing specifications. The author suggests that the policy of defining refugee groups as 'other' results in an inequitable distribution of benefits for these high needs populations. A chapter on barriers to healthcare outlines difficulties that refugees have accessing health services including: problems with language; the isolation of refugee women; and other physical, social and cultural issues. A lack of trained interpreters in the primary and community sectors, and the use of children as interpreters are also identified as issues. In the area of preventative medicine, such as participation in health screening programmes, a lack of literacy may be an additional issue. The author suggests that, while health, housing and income support services are publicly available, access to services by refugees is inequitable, as there is little or no cultural and linguistic accommodation of their needs.

Recommendations: The author concludes that:

• an overarching integration policy for refugees (led by central government) is required
• institutional responses that accommodate the special psychosocial, socioeconomic and cultural/religious requirements of refugee groups are needed - this would include the development of a locally relevant multiculturalism to guide social policy in New Zealand
• in the long-term, for people from refugee backgrounds to become full political, social, economic and cultural members of New Zealand society, there needs to be a rethinking of the contemporary models of citizenship offered.

Scope: This qualitative study uses multiple methods, including historical and social policy analysis, and interviews with 28 healthcare providers.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; citizenship; civic/political participation; religion; social exclusion; language acquisition/ESOL; health/wellbeing; women; research methods: review; research methods: interviews; host country/region: New Zealand; refugees.

Ethnic/cultural identity

C5 Bihi, A. (1999). Cultural identity, adaptation and wellbeing of Somali refugees in New Zealand. Unpublished research paper submitted in partial fulfilment of the Master of Development Studies degree, Victoria University, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: The main purpose of the research was to assess the relative importance of cultural identity to refugee adaptation and wellbeing.

Participants: Somali refugees in Wellington, NGO officials and government officials.

Key findings/outcomes: The findings show that retaining cultural identity contributes significantly to refugee wellbeing and is vital for refugees' successful adaptation into a new society. It enables refugees to cope with many adversities and function as normal human beings. As refugees' cultural needs cannot be separated from their socioeconomic needs, the findings suggest that resettlement should encompass:

• restoration - or recovery of livelihoods and restoration of family, peace and a sense of control over their lives
• re-adaptation - learning how to live in new material conditions and different cultural settings; enhancing the refugees' capabilities
• retention - of the core values of Somali identity, i.e. language, religion and kin solidarity.

Lack of language ability, a relatively low level of qualifications compared to normal immigrants, cultural barriers, the lack of their own means to improve job and language skills and lack of 'mates' to introduce them to a job all hamper refugees' employability. Refugees are always viewed as victimised and vulnerable people but not as capable people who can actively contribute to society.

Recommendations: The author recommends affirmative action to enhance refugees' employability in the form of financial incentives for refugees and tax and other incentives for employers.

• At the policy level, there is an urgent need for a comprehensive refugee resettlement policy based on close co-ordination between different government departments that deal with refugees.
• Ensuring that NGOs involved with refugees are adequately resourced is vital.
• Language proficiency is vital for refugee integration. A minimum of 520 hours of free English language training, together with childcare arrangements for women (to start within the first months of arrival), is absolutely essential.
• Concrete efforts putting refugees into the job market should be the priority.
• On health matters, the refugees need trauma treatment, which is, at present, inadequately addressed. In primary healthcare, there should be more culturally sensitive service delivery to Somalis.
• Alternative teaching with bilingual teachers, particularly at secondary school level.
• Family reunion is essential to refugee adaptation. It is the most serious factor that causes refugee anxiety.
• Currently, refugee involvement in decisions that concern their lives is minimal or non-existent. A genuine participatory approach that involves refugee communities in policy formulation on resettlement, integration matters and service delivery is long overdue.
• Cultural identity maintenance should be duly recognised for its role in refugee integration.

Scope: A relatively small scale thesis that draws on wide personal experience. It includes useful background information on Somali society, history and culture as well as views on resettlement. It does not take a particularly long-term view.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; religion; transnationalism/diaspora; social capital/networks; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: Somalia; research methods: interviews; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

C6 Colic-Peisker, V. (1999). 'Two waves of Croatian migrants in Western Australia: class and national identity'. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 34(4), 353-370.

Research focus/aims: The paper examines the ways in which two waves of Croatian migrants in Western Australia have constructed their ethnic/national identity following migration.

Participants: Croatian migrants who arrived in the 1960s and 1970s, and migrants who arrived in the 1980s and 1990s. Neither group came as refugees.

Key findings/outcomes: The first group of migrants were largely working class people from rural areas; the second wave was mostly professional people from urban areas. The two groups differ in most of the central elements of ethnicity: religion, values, type of community and language. A rural-urban divide combined with a class gap is a crucial point of division. The two groups interact very little and cannot be considered to belong to a single 'ethnic community' in any meaningful way.

Recommendations: No specific recommendations are included.

Scope: The paper draws on semi-structured interviews and participant observation carried out over a number of years while the author worked as a Croatian interpreter.

Country research undertaken in: Australia.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; religion; host country/region: Australia; source country/region: Croatia; research methods: interviews; research methods: ethnographic; migrants.

C7 Colic-Peisker, V. (2003). 'Identity loss and reconstruction in forced migration: the case of Bosnian refugees in Australia'. Abstract only. Australian Journal of Psychology Supplement, 2003, Combined Abstracts of 2003 Psychology Conferences, 172.

Research focus/aims: This paper explores the processes of identity loss during forced migration and identity reconstruction upon arrival of refugees in Australia.

Participants: Bosnian refugees in Perth and Sydney.

Key findings/outcomes: People's identities are embedded in their former communities, jobs, skills, language and culture, which are lost in forced migration. Unsatisfactory reconstruction of identity is associated with unemployment, loss of status, acculturation stress and social marginalisation. Identity processes are mediated by the groups refugees belong to or aspire to belong to. For most people, their refugee community mediates this process. A more enduring and substantial identity reconstruction seems to depend on successful socioeconomic integration, which opens the possibility of new desirable social roles and memberships.

Recommendations: No recommendations are included in the abstract.

Scope: This abstract draws on the same information and covers similar topics as Colic-Peisker and Walker (2003) [H12].

Country research undertaken in: Australia.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; integration/social cohesion; language maintenance; social capital/networks; economic participation; host country/region: Australia; source country/region: Bosnia; research methods: interviews; refugees.

C8 Debski, S. (2008). An exploratory study of the concept of identity for some adult refugee women in the context of their resettlement in New Zealand. Unpublished thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of MA (Applied) in Social Science Research, Victoria University, Wellington.

Research focus/aims: Relationship between women's sense of identity and their wellbeing.

Participants: Nine well-educated English-speaking refugee women from different ethnic backgrounds - Africa, Asia, the Middle East and Europe. All were aged 20 or older.

Key findings/outcomes: Explores identity in four areas: being a woman, being a refugee, social relations, and adaptation time and space. Women viewed education and employment as key to identity and as a means to a better life. Being labelled as a refugee had lost its significance over time. Social relations within their own communities facilitated cultural retention and transmission. Social relations with other communities were sporadic. Participants retained some aspects of their culture, modified others and adopted English as the medium of communication with their new culture.

Recommendations:

• Providing more information to refugees as soon as their application is processed.
• Create resettlement programmes aimed exclusively at women.
• Resettle families at the same time and together.
• Provide regular ESOL classes to women that are appropriate to their needs.
• Strengthen the current policies of settling refugees from the same ethnocultural backgrounds and/or same faith together.
• Increase refugees' opportunities for integration into New Zealand society by making educational and training opportunities more accessible and affordable.
• Support and encourage current community initiatives that aim to strengthen ethnic communities and build their capability (for example, ChangeMakers Refugee Forum).
• Develop education programmes that present the advantages of cultural diversity and positive implications of national identity. These programmes should be implemented in various places such as schools and workplaces in order to reach as many people as possible (New Zealanders as well as voluntary migrants and refugees). The aim of these programmes would be to educate people about the benefits of living in a culturally diverse country and deflate the popular belief that too much diversity weakens one's identity.

Scope: Small study of nine women - findings are similar to those of other studies.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; women; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; refugees.

C9 Engebritsen, A. (2007). 'Kinship, gender and adaptation processes in exile: the case of Tamil and Somali families in Norway'. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 33(5), 727-746.

Research focus/aims: The paper uses cultural scripts concerning kinship, marriage and gender to challenge media constructions of two groups' adaptation to the host country.

Participants: Tamil and Somali families in Oslo, Norway.

Key findings/outcomes: Both Tamil and Somali families had a substantial part of their network outside Norway, both in their country of origin and in other countries around the world. The financial demands of these networks were greater on Somali than Tamil families. Whereas the cultural scripts of the Tamil community appeared to work towards a concentration of resources in Tamil society, the opposite was the case with Somali families. In Tamil families, spouses had a high level of common friends and close family networks; conformity was expected while personal autonomy was restricted. The nomadic background of Somali families has led to separate social and support networks for spouses and more differentiated roles for men and women. Women increasingly worked outside the home, but the majority of Somali men were without work in Norway. Gender tension and divorce rates were relatively high. Divorce and economic support can empower Somali women but have adverse consequences for men. When men cannot obtain paid labour, welfare policy and family benefits set up to support families and promote gender equality may instead support the breakdown of families and the marginalisation of males.

Recommendations: The author stresses the importance of understanding the different cultural aspects that inform adaptation processes, particularly cultural scripts relating to families, marriage and gender.

Scope: A qualitative study based on participant fieldwork among Tamil and Somali migrants in Norway, in-depth interviews with spouses in 21 families and a network diagram mapping the social relations of spouses.

Country research undertaken in: Norway.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; economic participation; transnationalism/diaspora; women; men; host country/region: Norway; source country/region: Somalia; source country/region: Asia; refugees; research methods: interviews; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

C10 Gozdziak, E. and Shandy, D. (2002). 'Editorial introduction: religion and spirituality in forced migration'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 15(2), 129-135.

Research focus/aims: A discussion of religion and spirituality as a source of emotional and cognitive support, as a form of social and political expression and as a vehicle for community building and group identity.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: Themes identified in the paper include the role of religion in conflict settings and the politicisation of religious identity, and the role of religion in coping with trauma. Religion serves as a source of resiliency. It may act to facilitate or impede integration processes. The authors highlight three themes: the importance of an inclusive conceptualisation of religion in its broadest sense; the ways in which world religions are culturally constructed; and the impact of those trained as secularists on issues of policy, practice and research concerning refugee populations.

Recommendations: There is a need for additional research and policy discussion into the role of religion in forced migration.

Scope: This is a high-level discussion paper, introducing a number of papers relating to religion and refugees.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; religion; research methods: discussion paper; refugees.

C11 Keel, M. and Brew, N. (2004). 'The settlement experiences of refugees from the former Yugoslavia: acculturation, ethnic identity, ethnicity, community and social network development'. Community, Work and Family, 7(1), 95-115.

Research focus/aims: The paper explores the processes of acculturation and adaptation, the development of social support networks and community as well as ethnic identity and ethnicity among refugees in mixed marriages.

Participants: Refugees from the former Yugoslavia who were in a mixed marriage and had been in Australia at least two years.

Key findings/outcomes: Many had a desire to mix with mainstream Australians but did not yet feel part of the Australian community. As a group, they saw value in maintaining their identity, language and cultural traditions. They were working towards an outcome of biculturalism - maintaining their cultural identity while being part of the dominant society.

Participants continued to identify as Yugoslav, but having Australian citizenship gave them a country with which to identify. Citizenship was tied to security. All had been made refugees on the basis of their ethnicity, not their identity.

Most had found it harder to become friends with Australians than they had imagined, partly due to language barriers and partly due to the way Australian society is structured, i.e. more in homes and less in the street or cafés.

Recommendations: The authors recommend more research into barriers to social networking and longitudinal research into network development.

Scope: A small descriptive study based on a series of conversational interviews with 12 refugees in mixed marriages.

Country research undertaken in: Australia.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; language maintenance; citizenship; social capital/networks; language acquisition/ESOL; host country/region: Australia; source country/region: former Yugoslavia; research methods: interviews; refugees.

C12 Weine, S., Muzurovic, N., Kulauzovic, Y., Besic, S., Lezic, A., Mujagic, A., Muzurovic, J., Spahovic, D., Feetham, S., Ware, N., Knafl, K. and Pavkovic, I. (2004). 'Family consequences of refugee trauma'. Family Process, 43(2), 147-160.

Research focus/aims: The study aimed to construct a model of the consequences of political violence for refugee families.

Participants: Bosnian refugees in Chicago.

Key findings/outcomes: The authors constructed a model across four realms of family life: changes in family roles and obligations; changes in family memories and communications; changes in family relationships with other family members; and changes in family connections with the ethnic community and the nation. The model outlined consequences for families displaced by war in each realm and strategies that help families rebuild their lives.

Recommendations: The authors recommend that refugee services become more family oriented and make interventions that are aligned with family perspectives. This includes recognising that refugee families often regard themselves as belonging to an extended transnational family.

Scope: The study used a grounded theory approach and textual coding and analysis with data from Bosnian refugee families in Chicago.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; transnationalism/diaspora; role of host country; health/wellbeing; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Bosnia; research methods: interviews; refugees.

Transnationalism/diaspora/global links

C13 Al-Ali, N., Black, R. and Koser, K. (2001a). 'The limits to transnationalism: Bosnian and Eritrean refugees in Europe as emerging transnational communities'. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 24(4), 578-600.

Research focus/aims: This article aims to explore limits in the practical application of the term 'transnational'. It particularly focuses on three areas:

• Exploring the historical context of migration in emerging transnationalism, suggesting that this is crucial to understanding the form that transnational activities will take.
• Focusing on the role of the state, identifying potential for and limitations on nation states and state-promoted nationalism in playing a key role in the development of transnational practices.
• Exploring the importance of social factors in stimulating transnational activities. This is done in part through examining how groups of Bosnian and Eritrean refugees came to be outside their countries of origin and looking at the extent to which they might be classified as engaging in transnational activities.

Participants: Around 30 Bosnian refugees in the United Kingdom and Netherlands, and Eritrean refugees in the United Kingdom and Germany in 1998-1999. Additional interviews were conducted with refugees' family and friends in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Eritrea during 1999. Participant observation also occurred at family gatherings and community events.

Key findings/outcomes: This article first identifies the approaches taken to the study of transnationalism including:

• the examination of transnational social, economic and political practices of migrants in different continents
• a focus on the potential role and importance of the concept of transnationalism on different academic disciplines
• study of the history of migratory practices and consideration of whether it is a recent or ongoing historical phenomenon
• demonstration of how transnationalism has been promoted as part of nation-building processes
• identification of examples of refugees developing global linkages demonstrating that transnationalism is not just linked to globalisation of the world economy.

Some definitions of transnationalism are provided as the basis for developing their own operational definition of transnationalism, which distinguishes between transnational 'activities' (which can be observed and measured) and transnational 'capabilities' (which encompass the willingness and ability of migrant groups to engage in activities that transcend national borders. The authors suggest that 'activities' can be political (for example, lobbying), economic (for example, remittances and investment), social (for example, promotion of human and other rights) and cultural (for example, articles in newspapers). Activities can take place at the individual leave (through family networks) or through institutional channels (for example, through community or international organisations). The 'capabilities' of migrant or exile groups to participate in activities transcending national borders involves the extent to which individuals or communities identify with the social, economic or political processes in their home countries. In practice, the capability of individuals, families and communities to become involved may depend on the skills and resources available to them. This, in turn, is influenced by factors such as length of time and opportunity structures in their destination country and on the internal organisation of migrant or exile communities and the level of motivation to maintain group solidarity. Uncertainties about legal status and the right to permanent residence in the country of refuge alongside financial instability, language problems and lack of employment are factors that impact negatively on the capabilities to get involved in transnational activities with the home country. Another factor is whether the 'home' that had been known still exists.

Application of this framework identified differences between the two groups, with Eritrean refugees having stronger transnational ties than the Bosnian refugees. The Eritreans had lived in the host country longer and were more likely to have legal status. In addition, their decision to stay outside was both voluntary and permanent. They had maintained strong links with family and friends in the State of Eritrea, and the state has taken steps to institutionalise transnational activities, particularly during recent conflict with Ethiopia (with a range of economic incentives to encourage remittances and investment as well as encouraging political involvement of the diaspora in voting and referendums).

In contrast, Bosnian refugees were sometimes perceived as traitors who fled during the war and failed to defend their homes. Differences were found within the Eritrean group, with those that had fled earlier having stronger links than those that had arrived more recently who were still focused on securing their positions in the new country. There were also differences between the groups in terms of social and identity base influences. Within the Bosnian group, those refugees who had travelled prior to experiencing exile and who had been living in urban centres found the settlement process easier and were more able to transcend boundaries of cultures, political entities and economic systems than those who had not travelled and who had lived in small rural centres. The authors considered, however, that transnational communities in both instances were in the process of emerging rather being than fully formed.

Recommendations: Suggests that more attention should be given to the nuances and variations between and within states of both sending and receiving countries.

Scope: Based on fieldwork in Netherlands, UK and Germany using in-depth interviews with around 30 refugees in each country using a snowball sampling technique that explicitly sought to include people from different backgrounds (men and women, different occupational backgrounds, rural and urban areas and different ethnic groups).

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom, Netherlands, Germany, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Eritrea.

Keywords: transnationalism/diaspora; community participation; civic/political participation; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; source country/region: Bosnia; source country/region: Eritrea; host country/region: United Kingdom; host country/region: Netherlands; host country/region: Germany; research methods: interviews; research methods: ethnographic.

C14 Al-Ali, N., Black, R. and Koser, K. (2001b). 'Refugees and transnationalism: the experience of Bosnians and Eritreans in Europe'. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 27(4), 615-634.

Research focus/aims: The purpose of this research was to explore the full range of transnational activity and capability of Bosnian and Eritrean refugees in Europe. These authors were concerned that the refugees had largely been excluded from studies of transnational activity and the limited number of studies that included refugees focused on their political activity.

Participants: Around 30 Bosnian refugees in the United Kingdom and Netherlands and Eritrean refugees in the United Kingdom and Germany in 1998-1999. Additional interviews were conducted with refugees' family and friends in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Eritrea during 1999, and participant observation occurred at family gatherings and community events.

Key findings/outcomes: While the two groups of refugees differed in the details of their transnational activity (largely due to differences in the way in which the home country recognised the diaspora), the range of activities undertaken was much broader than just political activities. Two typographies relating to the transnational activities undertaken by these groups were presented.

The first typography is a categorisation of a refugee's individual and community activities by type (economic, political, social and cultural) and by geographical focus.

Economic activities with a home country focus included financial remittances, other remittances (for example, medicine, clothes), charitable donations, taxes, purchases of government bonds and purchase of entry to government programmes, while those with a host country focus included charitable donations and donations to community organisations.

Political activities with a home country focus included participation in election and membership of political parties, while those with a host country focus included political rallies and demonstrations, and mobilisations of political contacts in the host country.

Social activities with a home country focus included visits to friends and family, social contacts, social remittances and contributions to newspapers circulated in the home country, while those with a host country focus included membership of social clubs, attendance at social gatherings, links with other organisations (for example, religious or refugee organisations), contribution to newspapers and participation in discussion groups (for example, internet bulletin boards).

Cultural activities with a home country focus included cultural events with visiting performers from the home country, while those with a host country focus included events to promote culture (for example, concerts, theatre and exhibitions) and education.

The article provides further illustration of such activities.

The second typography sets out factors that increase individual capacities to participate in reconstruction in the home country and distinguishes between capacity and desire in relation to economic, political and social factors.

Economic capacity factors include employment, savings, access to welfare and pensions from both home and from the host country and access to information and to banking facilities, while economic desire factors include financial stability in host country, economic incentives (or lack of disincentives) for remittances and investments in the home country and economic stability in home country.

Political capacity is dependent upon secure legal status, positive attitude of the host government and population towards ethnic/national diasporas and political integration of diaspora by the home government, while political desire relates to secure legal status in the host country, non-alienating circumstances of flight, positive attitudes of the home government towards diaspora, political stability in the home country and lack of ethnic/religious discrimination in the home country.

Social capacity relates to freedom of movement within the host country, gender equality, successful social integration in the host country and place of origin in the home country, while social desire relates to links with family and friends in both the home country and in other host countries, integration with the diaspora in the host country, positive attitudes towards the home country and desire to maintain national consciousness.

Recommendations: That transnationalism be considered a dynamic process.

Scope: The authors point out that their discussion is based on work in progress involving interviews with relatively small population samples. Based on fieldwork in Netherlands, UK and Germany using in-depth interviews with around 30 refugees from Bosnia and a similar number from Eritrea.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom, Netherlands, Germany, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Eritrea.

Keywords: transnationalism/diaspora; civic/political participation; social capital/networks; community participation; education/training; economic participation; source country/region: Bosnia; source country/region: Eritrea; host country/region: United Kingdom; host country/region: Netherlands; host country/region: Germany; research methods: interviews; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

C15 Crisp, J. (1999). Policy challenges of the new diaspora: migrant networks and their impact on asylum flows and refugees. Policy Research Unit, UNHCR.

Research focus/aims: To redress the lack of academic discourse on the relationships maintained by refugees and asylum seekers, as they form a significant proportion (approximately a third) of the people currently living outside their country of birth. The author suggests that there has been a rigid separation between exiles' 'country of origin' and 'country of asylum' as well as a division between the field of refugee studies and the study of international migration.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: Sets the context of numbers of people with refugee status and asylum seekers since 1970s. It states that the decline in scale of resettlement has been matched by growth in the number of asylum seekers submitting applications for refugee status in Western Europe.

Legal categories and social networks - The author rejects the suggestion that refugees should be treated as special and separate cases because of their distinct legal and psychological considerations (due to involuntary leaving), but rather suggests that asylum seekers, refugees and refugee networks should be considered as an integral part of the new migrant diaspora. Reasons provided include:

• that it is increasingly difficult to distinguish between voluntary and involuntary population movements
• that many refugees in Western Europe live alongside compatriots and co-ethnics who are part of the broader diaspora/transnational community but not necessarily refugees i.e. focusing on communities as a whole rather than just those recognised as refugees
• the global networks and transnational communities of which refugees may be part rarely consist only of refugees (but are likely to incorporate a range of migrants categories).

The author suggests that:

• little attention has been given to the role of social networks in prompting, facilitating, sustaining and directing the movement of asylum seekers and other migrants into Western Europe
• there is a dearth of information on the migration strategies/decision making done by asylum seekers (rather an emphasis on public policy), i.e. what information was available when they made a decision to leave their own country, what information is available to them, how their journey is financed and the extent to which they had prior contact with the country.

The author also suggests that social networks perform a number of important functions in the process of asylum migration including:

• being an important source of information on details such as transport arrangements, asylum procedures, social policies and detention and deportation policies, and about the quality of life generally
• possibly providing a means of mobilising the financial resources required for a person to leave a low- or middle-income country and to seek asylum in a more prosperous state (mentions both payments to traffickers and remittance
• networks can provide organisational infrastructure required for people to move from one part of country to other
• networks can also provide asylum seekers and irregular workers with subsistence and support (especially employment).

Recommendations: Calls for need for:

• empirical research (for example, analysis of UNHCR data) in order to identify the changing pattern of asylum seeking in the region and the extent to which applications for refugee status have been made in countries with greater presence of co-ethnics/compatriots
• more consideration of the impact migrant networks have had on asylum regimes in Western Europe.

Scope: Based on review of secondary sources.

Country research undertaken in: Not applicable.

Keywords: transnationalism/diaspora; social capital/networks; economic participation; research methods: discussion paper; refugees, including asylum seekers.

C16 Horst, C. (2006). Connected lives: Somalis in Minneapolis, family responsibilities and the migration dreams of relatives. Switzerland: Policy and Evaluation Service, UNHCR.

Research focus/aims: The focus of this paper is to explore three types of transnational connections (detailed below) between Somalis living in Minneapolis and those living in the Kenyan Dadaab refugee camps.

Participants: Somalis living in and around Minneapolis in the United States.

Key findings/outcomes: After describing the situation of Somalis in Dadaab and the importance of remittance and discussing the concept of 'buufis' (one meaning of which is 'migration dreams'), the author provides background information on the Somali community in Minneapolis. Three types of connections were explored by the author:

• The nature of material assistance provided by Somalis in the West to those in Dadaab, the capacities and constraints they faced and the effect of their current position on their willingness to remit. The author found that age, gender, education, English proficiency, length of stay, type of employment, social networks and number of dependents were all vital factors in determining whether someone was successful or not. Regardless of success and financial stability, almost all Somalis sent some money to relatives left behind and found money if there was an urgent need. The author suggests that the fulfilling of family obligations is not only a matter of having no option, but also related to the status that is acquired when helping others.
• The nature of information exchanged between those in Minneapolis and those in Kenya and the effect of this information on images of life in the West and the migration dreams held by those in Kenya and on shared decision making on livelihood strategies in general and migration options in particular by family members. When asked if people back home knew where money came from, some Somalis said they told relatives they worked in better jobs than was the reality. Others described how their families did not understand how life was for them and made unrealistic demands, while, in other cases, remittances were not spent wisely or cause dependence.
• The nature of migration processes that are taking place, related to historical patterns as well as to current opportunities. The author describes the importance to Somalis of obtaining documents that allow Somalis to travel freely. Once these are obtained, she suggests that Somalis engage in various forms of short-term and long-term travel and may move from the place of initial resettlement to a destination that they think provides more opportunities.

Recommendations: None.

Scope: Discussions with Somali refugees living in Minneapolis and research in Kenyan refugee camps. Findings from these discussions are interwoven with the literature.

Country research undertaken in: United States and Kenya.

Keywords: Transnationalism/diaspora; social capital/networks; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Somalia; research methods: interviews; refugees.

See also:

• Horst, C. (2004). 'Money and mobility: transnational livelihood strategies of the Somali diaspora'. Global Migration Perspectives, 9(October). Global Commission on International Migration.

C17 Shandy, D. (2006). 'Global transactions: Sudanese refugees sending money home'. Refuge: Canada's Periodical on Refugees, 23(2), 28-35.

Research focus/aims: This paper explores Sudanese (Nuer) refugee remittances from those in the US-based diaspora to those who remain behind in Africa.

Participants: South Sudanese refugees in both United States and Ethiopia (numbers not specified).

Key findings/outcomes: The author suggests that, while it is impossible to calculate the precise sums remitted by Sudanese refugees (because of a lack of data), it is possible to describe the formal and informal ways used to remit. She found that formal channels like Western Union and Moneygram were used heavily, but not direct back transfers. Informal (but not casual) ways of dispatching funds included sending money with acquaintances visiting Africa and using alternative remittance systems (some of which may have changed since 11 September 2001). The author provides details of these processes, and much of the article concerns the impact of the funds on the lives of Sudanese recipients in Ethiopia.

However, some points do relate to the integration of refugees in the United States. She suggests that, if resettled Africans in the United States are using resources to support families in Africa as well as immediate families in the United States, this clearly has impact on their integration into a new society. This may be through forgoing educational opportunities in lieu of income generating ones or taking a job that pays more immediately rather than an entry-level job with upward mobility potential. She also raises the question of the effects on the next generation if parents are working more hours during shifts when their children are at home and in need of care. The author then suggests that two points need to be considered:

• Many Sudanese refugees may be barred from working 'prime' shifts simply because they occupy the lowest rungs of the socioeconomic ladder.
• In response to the anti-immigration rhetoric, that remittances are a threat to social cohesion in the host country. She suggests that it is unrealistic for host country members to expect that refugees will turn their back on loved ones (for example, parents or children) who are suffering in Africa in order to invest fully in their new societies in the diaspora.

Recommendations: None.

Scope: Details of methodology are not provided but the author describes her work as an ethnographic study in two locations.

Country research undertaken in: United States and Ethiopia.

Keywords: transnationalism/diaspora; role of host country; economic participation; education/training; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Ethiopia; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

C18 Um, K. (2006). 'Diasporic nationalism, citizenship and postwar reconstruction'. Refuge: Canada's Periodical on Refugees, 23(2), 8-19.

Research focus/aims: This article examines the relationship between Cambodian diaspora and homeland, and aims to illustrate the complexities of transnational connection and the liberalisations in state control that have occurred since 1993.

Participants: Notes indicate interviews were conducted in both Phnom Penh and the US.

Key findings/outcomes: The author outlines a number of key findings:

• Reasons for 'exilic longing for homeland' include: because return is denied; to redress the sense of dissociation created by atrocities and the inability to carry out rituals over mass graves through reconnecting; a wish to contribute skills to rebuilding in acknowledgement that they have had opportunities denied to those who remained; to create a sense of belonging that has been undermined by working in less professional roles than in the homeland and experience of racism; and a sense of wanting to keep options open. It is suggested that the option of dual citizenship is not a matter of splintered loyalty but a strategy for maximising social and economic capital to enhance personal and collective security.
• Instances of transnational political remittance where Cambodian Americans mobilise to provide economic and political support for homeland and how the right to vote as diaspora was gained.
• Roles of community organisations in providing space for affirming cultural and ethnic identity and political activity/communications about homeland.
• Examples of formal economic ties - entrepreneurship, multinational companies, travel agencies and investing in Cambodian business (although lack of legal and business infrastructure puts some off) and transfer of skills and technology.
• Non-formal economic engagement, for example, through travellers to and from the homeland avoiding carrier charges.
• Transnational cultural projects, for example, ceremonies held simultaneously, or sister city projects.

Other headings include gender; generation and transnationalism; role of the receiving and sending states; and the role of international, transnational and supranational forces.

The article concludes with a discussion of the problems involved with return to the homeland, identifying a range of issues including the losses that then occur within the diasporean community and community groups, the loss of earnings, and the expectations and imbalances that occur between those providing capital and those dependent on it.

There is some mention of generational perspectives and use of the term '1.8 generation' to mean those who migrate in their preadolescence as opposed to the 1.5 generation who arrive in their early teens.

Recommendations: Transnationalism is more than sending financial remittances and involves a complex range of factors operating at personal and national levels.

Scope: The findings draw from interviews and secondary sources in both Cambodia and the United States.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: transnationalism/diaspora; citizenship; ethnic/cultural identity; civic/political participation; social capital/networks; economic participation; gender; 1.5 generation; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Vietnam; refugees; research methods: interviews.

C19 Valverde, C. (2003). 'Making transnational Vietnam: Vietnamese American Community- Vietnam linkages through money, music and modems'. Abstract only. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 64(2), 676-677-A.

Research focus/aims: Transnational links between Vietnamese Americans and Vietnam.

Participants: Vietnamese Americans.

Key findings/outcomes: This dissertation examines how, despite pressures from their own ethnic community as well as national forces and international restrictions to keep Vietnamese Americans from having connections with their home country and its inhabitants, they still manage to forge and maintain strong political, economic and cultural transnational ties with Vietnam. A close investigation of factors such as remittances, internet virtual communities and popular music productions reveals dynamic transnational linkages that directly and indirectly shape the complex nature of Vietnamese American contemporary diasporic experiences. Vietnamese Americans are actors and agents with multiple identifications and vast familial, political, economic and cultural networks spanning the globe.

Recommendations: None in abstract.

Scope: The available abstract gave limited information on scale, but it can be assumed to be modest given that this is a thesis.

Country research undertaken in: Vietnam.

Keywords: transnationalism/diaspora; ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Vietnam; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.

C20 Van Hear, N. (2003). Refugee diasporas, remittances, development and conflict. Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute. Retrieved from www.migrationinformation.org/feature/display.cfm?ID=125.

Research focus/aims: A discussion of the factors that influence the contribution those refugees and other migrants can make in influencing their homelands. This depends on what resources they can mobilise and this may depend on where they are located (for example, availability of communications technologies).

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: Remittances are an important influence on country of origin. However, it is difficult to estimate the extent to which refugees contribute to global flows because:

• data on remittances is patchy
• existing data may not disaggregate the contribution from refugees (versus other migrants)
• refugees in richer countries may remit both to homeland and neighbouring countries of first asylum, making contributions more diffuse than for other migrants.

The paper identifies advantages and downsides of refugee remittances in terms of distribution (they may just go to better-off households) and end use (for example, they could be used to perpetuate conflict). It also points out the dilemma facing source countries in terms of whether it is more helpful to have refugees return/repatriated or to have them continue to contribute to the economy as diaspora. The author also suggests (in this and other articles) that refugees who end up in Western countries where they are in a position to send remittances may have had more resources to begin with.

Recommendations: Recommendations are intended for those developing aid and migration policies.

Scope: A discussion paper.

Country research undertaken in: Denmark,

Keywords: transnationalism/diaspora; economic participation; refugees; research methods: discussion paper.

C21 Vertovec, S. (2001). 'Transnationalism and identity'. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 27(4), 573-582.

Research focus/aims: This introduction to a special edition of JEMS on transnationalism first outlines key features of the transnational perspective in migration studies and then outlines critiques and outstanding questions surrounding the notion of transnationalism.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The author states that researchers on migration have generally recognised that migrants maintain various forms of contact with people and institutions in their place of origin (for example, through scale of correspondence and remittances around the turn of the 20th century). However, from the 1920s through until the early 1990s, most migration research focused on how migrants adapt themselves to or are socially excluded from their place of immigration. Since the 1990s (due to key anthropological texts), there has been an increased focus on the attachment that migrants maintain to families, communities, traditions and causes outside the nation state from which they have moved. More recently, there is a focus on how the nature of these linkages has changed due to developments in travel and communications technologies and how new, cheaper and more efficient forms of technology and transport allow migrants to maintain home-based relationships and interests. The author outlines how the economic, social and cultural, and political impacts of transnationalism have been studied. He suggests that the economic impacts of transnational communities are extensive - in particular, how contributions made through remittances affect economic life and resources in the home country. Social and cultural impacts are varied as well and include marriage alliances, religious activity, media and community construction.

The author suggests that these forms of transnational connection affect migrants as never before, in terms of the construction, maintenance and negotiation of collective identities. This has significant bearing on the culture of second generation or children born to migrants. Political impacts include impacts on citizenship and homeland politics and challenge the notion that "the nation state acts as a kind of container of social, economic and political processes".

Other points discussed include the area of multiple citizenships and the effect of maintaining a transnational identity on integration. The authors suggest that the literature varies as to whether having transnational ties weakens immigration in the receiving country or enhances democracy.

The paper then briefly reviews several critiques that "should be born in mind concerning the shift towards a transnational approach towards migration processes and migrant community". These critiques include:

• a questioning of how new or unique the theoretical approach really is
• a questioning of the use of the term itself in a broad or narrow sense and suggestion that there is a need to develop a typology of multiple transnationalisms and the conditions that affect them
• the need to include a historical perspective (including consideration of extent, structural and technical capabilities and migrants' own desires, strategies and practices of remaining connected around the world
• the extent to which contemporary transnationalism is wholly attributable to shifts in technology, the context of transnational activity within global capitalism
• a questioning of the extent to which transnationalism is exclusive to the first generation of migrants.

The author then briefly reviews the articles in the rest of the issue. Only one specifically mentions refugees - Al-Ali, Black and Koser (2001b) [C14] emphasise the need to incorporate refugees into the emergent transnational perspective and suggest that this will undermine the long-standing conceptual distinction between migrants and refugees in contrast to the views of Crisp (1999) [C15].

Recommendations: None.

Scope: Discussion paper providing an overview of literature on transnationalism and a synopsis of the contributing articles in this journal, pointing out ways in which the authors consider transnational settings and dynamics along with effects on the construction, negotiation and reproduction of individual and group identity.

Country research undertaken in: Not applicable.

Keywords: transnationalism/diaspora; ethnic/cultural identity; citizenship; religion; civic/political participation; social capital/networks; social exclusion; children/youth; second generation; research methods: discussion paper; migrants, including refugees.

C22 Wahlbeck, O. (2002). 'The concept of diaspora as an analytic tool in the study of refugee communities'. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 28(2), 221-238.

Research focus/aims: To explore how contemporary discussions about the concepts of transnationalism and diaspora can contribute to the study of refugees, in part drawing from the findings of ethnographic studies conducted in the 1990s.

Participants: Kurdish refugees in the United Kingdom and Finland.

Key findings/outcomes: The conclusion of the ethnographic research was that refugees' social relations cannot be understood through usual theories of ethnic relations (within a host country) because the social groups with whom they interact are maintained through transnational contacts. The concept of diaspora is first explored with examples of recent literature and then an argument is presented that the concept of diaspora 'as an ideal type' should be regarded as an analytical tool that can be used to study refugee communities. This involves the adoption of a perspective that regards diaspora as a form of social organisation.

The ideal type adopted is a definition presented by Safran (1991:83-84).[6] While not all refugee communities will have all these characteristics, it is argued that having an ideal type is a useful analytical tool and can be used to study the causes and consequences of diasporic formation as well as categorising types of diasporic communities as expatriate minority communities whose members share several of the following characteristics:

• They or their ancestors, have been dispersed from a specific original 'centre' to two or more 'peripheral', or foreign, regions.
• They retain a collective memory, vision or myth about their original homeland - its physical location, history and achievements.
• They believe that they are not - and perhaps cannot be - fully accepted by their host society and therefore feel partly alienated and insulated from it.
• They regard their ancestral homeland as their true, ideal home and as the place to which they or their descendents would (or should) eventually return - when conditions are appropriate.
• They believe that they should collectively be committed to the maintenance or restoration of their original homeland and to its safety and prosperity.
• They continue to relate, personally or vicariously, to that homeland in one way or another, and their ethnocommunal consciousness and solidarity are importantly defined by the existence of such a relationship.

The author suggests that studying refugees' diasporic social relations is important in describing their experience but that it must not be at the exclusion of also studying experiences within the host country (for example, phenomena such as racism, discrimination and exclusion).

Recommendations: The paper suggests that adoption of an ideal concept of diaspora to refugee studies would more realistically describe the refugee experience through bridging the before and after migration gap.

Scope: A discussion piece drawing from the findings of an ethnographic study conducted by the author in the 1990s. The purpose of the study was to obtain a broad understanding of the Kurdish refugees' situation and problems as seen from their own point of view and, in particular, to examine the effects of diaspora formation on the integration of refugee communities into the host society.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom and Finland.

Keywords: methodological issues of refugee research; transnationalism/diaspora; social capital/networks; social exclusion; host country/region: Finland; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: Middle East; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

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