D. Community and social networks

Social capital and social networks

D1 Atfield, G., Brahmbhatt, K. and O'Toole, T. (2007). Refugees' experiences of integration. Birmingham: Refugee Council and University of Birmingham.

Research focus/aims: This comparative study explored the impact of local context on the social aspects of refugee integration through comparing the experiences of refugees living in two different localities and across different groups of refugees.

Participants: 90 refugees in Haringey and Dudley, United Kingdom. There was a mix of refugees in terms of gender, age, ethnicity, country of origin, length of settlement in the United Kingdom and family status.

Key findings/outcomes: This study drew on the work of Zetter et al. (2002) [A18] and used Ager and Strang's model of integration (2004b) [A20] and found that locality had a strong impact on refugees' experiences of integration.

The research found instances of good practice were evident in areas with a relatively short history of refugee settlement as well as in the area with a longer history. Refugees' own conceptions of integration focused on: functional aspects such as employment, education, language acquisition and housing; avenues for social integration; and aspirations for equal citizenship. Social networks generated resources in the form of information, material goods, emotional support and capacity building. Bonded social networks were primarily based on shared nationality or language and could be formal or informal. Bridging social networks were primarily formed through social contacts in neighbourhoods, childcare activities, attending ESOL courses and places of worship and engaging in voluntary activities.

Social networks are often important for recently settled refugees in meeting material and informational needs. Over time, they may be more useful for generating emotional or capacity building resources. Barriers to accessing and maintaining social networks included lack of choice, for example, in housing or employment, lack of material resources, immigration status and lack of employment.

Recommendations: The report includes recommendations at the national as well as at the regional and local level to promote social integration.

National level recommendations related to: dispersal policies; financial support; access to entitlements such as education, employment, and legal advice; integration; and the processing of immigration claims.

Regional and local level recommendations related to: provision of services, including ESOL, childcare, job training, and physical and mental healthcare; the development of shared interests between refugees and local community members; reliable and accessible information on refugees and asylum seekers; support for victims of hate crime; and local participation.

Voluntary organisations and inter-faith groups play significant roles as well.

Scope: A qualitative study based on in-depth interviews with 90 refugees with follow-up interviews of a subsample of 26 and profiling data from two areas.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; citizenship; religion; social capital/networks; dispersal policies; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; refugees.

D2 Beirens, H., Hughes, N., Hek, R. and Spicer, N. (2007). 'Preventing social exclusion of refugee and asylum seeking children: building new networks'. Social Policy and Society, 6(2), 219-229.

Research focus/aims: The paper explores the role of social networks in mitigating social exclusion and barriers to building networks.

Participants: Case studies of services funded through the Children's Fund.

Key findings/outcomes: The research uses the domains of integration developed by Ager and Strang (2004b) [A20] relating to social connections: social bonds, which relate to connections within a community; social links, which relate to engagement with institutions, agencies and services; and social bridges, which are social connections with those of other national, ethnic or religious groupings, promoting two-way interaction to support social cohesion. It describes actions by two agencies, one in London and one in a metropolitan area, targeting newly arrived and second generation refugees. Services included after school clubs, home-school liaison, holiday activities, family support services, therapeutic services, community-led organisations and services promoting school integration. Adults and children interviewed were positive about the multifaceted approach, particularly in strengthening social bonds.

Recommendations: The development of social bonds and social links can help reduce incidents of social exclusion. On the other hand, the report notes that the growing emphasis on social bridges at the expense of the development of social bonds, could potentially limit the effectiveness of attempts to reduce social exclusion.

Scope: Based on case studies in two areas, using interviews with a wide range of service providers and participants, as well as observation and analysis of monitoring data.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; social capital/networks; community participation; social exclusion; children/youth; second generation; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; refugees, including asylum seekers.

D3 Bloemraad, I. (2005). 'The limits of de Tocqueville: how government facilitates organisational capacity in newcomer communities'. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31(5), 865-888.

Research focus/aims: The role of state intervention in fostering immigrants' and refugees' ability to establish and sustain community organisations.

Participants: Portuguese and Vietnamese communities in Boston and Toronto.

Key findings/outcomes: The paper compares the effects of government policies in the United States and Canada on government support for ethnic organisations. The report concludes that government assistance promotes organisational capacity among immigrants in Canada to a greater extent than in the United States. Immigrant organisations benefit from government intervention. Organisations servicing immigrant and refugee clients received a higher proportion (more than two-thirds) of their revenue from government sources than other organisations. The author notes that many of the individuals running the large immigrant organisations that benefit most from government funding are the children of immigrants or individuals who came to the United States or Canada at a young age. She suggests that 1.5 and second generation individuals are better placed to maximise policy, coalition and funding networks given their greater linguistic and social integration into the host country.

Recommendations: The author argues for more research into whether state support benefits all groups equally, why such organisations matter and what kind of organisations groups want.

Scope: A comparative study of two ethnic groups (only one of which is a refugee group) in two cities in two countries.

Country research undertaken in: Canada and United States.

Keywords: social capital/networks; role of host country; 1.5 generation; second generation; host country/region: United States; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Vietnam; source country/region: Portugal; research methods: case studies; migrants, including refugees.

D4 Grigoleit, G. (2006). 'Coming home? The integration of Hmong refugees from Wat Tham Krabok, Thailand into American society'. Hmong Studies Journal, 7, 1-22.

Research focus/aims: To find out the experiences of Hmong refugees who moved from Wat Tham Krabok, Thailand to the United States under the Family Reunification Program from December 2003 and the host communities in the United States (some of whom had arrived 30 years before).

Participants: Government officials and International Office of Migration (IOM) staff in Thailand and Hmong refugees in Minneapolis, US.

Key findings/outcomes: Information was collected via interview, observations and discussions and fell into four specific areas: life and daily routine in refugee settlements in Wat Tham Krabok, Thailand; first impressions upon arriving in United States; the transition into American culture; and experiences related to the local Hmong-American community.

Resettling of the Hmong refugees from Wat Tham Krabok was very challenging particularly in states already housing large Hmong communities. Factors contributing to adjustment stress included a lack of federal finding, limited information about the refugee population, short timeframes and a lack of communication between state, federal and social service providers. Financial hardship was caused by federal state reforms. Economic and social integration was difficult due to educational limitations, a lack of transferable occupational skills, language barrier and cultural differences. Because of the limited assistance, there was a greater reliance on support offered by the US-based Hmong community who themselves had limited resources. The new refugees found adapting culturally even more difficult than they expected when confronted with a diverse and segmented American Hmong community and were uncertain about how to act and function in the outside world and within their own cultural community.

Recommendations: None.

Scope: This research was based on the author's doctoral field work. It included findings arising from face-to-face semi-structured interviews with officials in Thailand, observations made during fieldwork, and interviews and group discussions held with refugees from Wat Tham Krabok, Thailand, now based in Minneapolis, United Sates.

Country research undertaken in: United States and Thailand.

Keywords: social capital/networks; ethnic/cultural identity; transnationalism/diaspora; role of host country; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Southeast Asia; research methods: interviews; refugees.

D5 Haines, D. (2002). 'Binding the generations: household formation patterns among Vietnamese refugees'. International Migration Review, 36(4), 1194-1218.

Research focus/aims: The paper examines key features of household formation among Vietnamese refugees and compares it with household formation in Vietnam.

Participants: Vietnamese refugees in the United States.

Key findings/outcomes: The historical analysis of households in South Vietnam found relatively high proportions of young adults who remain unmarried and reside with their parents. This pattern has been sustained in South (but not North) Vietnam over time. Analysis of households formed by refugees who arrived in the United States between May 1994 and April 1999 suggest an even sharper delay in marriage and even longer residence with parents. Those who had been in the country longer were less likely to be married, suggesting the influence of cohort characteristics rather than time in country per se. Married women were less likely to work than unmarried women. The author concludes that basic patterns of household formation persist even when the conditions of migration are - as they are for refugees - relatively disorderly. The implications of delayed marriage and prolonged co-residence might increase the likelihood of household self-sufficiency through a flexible allocation of roles.

Options range from freeing a household member from work for education or parenting, to putting everybody to work to accrue capital for some joint goal, such as owning a home.

Recommendations: The study makes no specific recommendations.

Scope: This is a quantitative study, which considers historical data for Vietnamese households and comparative data for other refugee groups in the United States.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: social capital/networks; education/training; economic participation; women; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Vietnam; research methods: survey; refugees.

D6 Korac, M. (2003). 'Integration and how we facilitate it: a comparative study of the settlement experiences of refugees in Italy and the Netherlands'. Sociology, 37(1), 51-68.

Research focus/aims: This study compares the experiences and perceptions of refugees who live under two models of integration: in Italy or in the Netherlands. It focuses on how the refugees perceive their social condition, how they describe integration success and how they develop strategies to achieve their goals.

Participants: Sixty refugees from Yugoslavia who settled in either Italy or the Netherlands.

Key findings/outcomes: This paper first highlights the lack of agreement over what 'integration' means. The author notes that studies about the problems of refugee settlement have tended to adopt a 'top-down' approach to the concept of 'integration' and focus on the structural and organisational aspects of the integration 'system'. The author describes the Netherlands approach to integration as 'top-down' and notes that many refugees were unsuccessful in establishing closer ties with the Dutch. Instead, their social networks were primarily based on family and kinship ties or established along ethnic lines. Even those who had citizenship felt a sense of insecurity about their legal status. By contrast, in Italy, assistance was minimal. Refugees had problems achieving a minimal degree of financial security. The need to find any kind of work interfered with education and training but it also meant that refugees were more likely to develop strong social ties outside their ethnic group. The author concludes that integration is importantly linked to the conditions of immediate settlement.

Recommendations: It is crucial to develop a policy framework that puts emphasis on all aspects of social inclusion. This means promoting strategies for building 'bridging social capital' - that is, links between established communities and newcomers.

Scope: An ethnographic piece of work, using in-depth interviews.

Country research undertaken in: Italy/Netherlands.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; ethnic/cultural identity; citizenship; social capital/networks; role of host country; economic participation; education/training; host country/region: Italy; host country/region: Netherlands; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; refugees.

See also:

• Korac, M. (2001). Dilemmas of integration: two policy contexts and refugee strategies for integration: final report of a comparative study of the integration experiences of refugees from former Yugoslavia in Rome and Amsterdam. Online report prepared for the Refugee Studies Centre, Queen Elizabeth House, University of Oxford. Retrieved from www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/PDFs/rrdilemmasintegration01.pdf.

D7 Shelley, N. (2001). 'Building community from "scratch": forces at work among urban Vietnamese refugees in Milwaukee'. Sociological Inquiry, 71(1), 473-482.

Research focus/aims: The research explores why a more cohesive, integrated community did not form among the Vietnamese in Milwaukee, given the circumstances of their entry, their cultural uniqueness and the publicity given to them as a group.

Participants: Vietnamese families who arrived in the United States between 1975 and 1991.

Key findings/outcomes: 'Community', including a degree of interdependence and more than surface familiarity with others, does not exist to a significant degree among the Vietnamese in Milwaukee. The author identifies four clusters of overlapping factors impacting on community fragmentation:

• Cultural factors such as generational differences, saving face, subethnic differences and success orientation.
• Demographics, including lack of critical mass, geographic isolation and dispersion.
• Resettlement processes, individual refugee experiences and adaptation strategies.
• Organisational issues including confusion/lack of formal organisations, adaptation strategies and success orientation and class/power interests that overlap with cultural factors and organisational issues.

The culmination of these forces is depicted as family isolationism and radical individualism, which together lead to community fragmentation.

The author concludes that:

• a common predicament, enemy or cause is not enough to induce or maintain a sustainable community
• ethnic identity alone is insufficient to build community
• environmental influences deserve more serious consideration in efforts to understand community building
• the desire for community and the means to affect community must be brought together
• community building is a process that combines social construction with self-definition
• sustainable community will not be formed unless it is seen as a viable tool for survival and adaptation.

Recommendations: No specific recommendations are included.

Scope: The paper is based on participant observation and qualitative interviewing over a period of three years with the Vietnamese community in Milwaukee.

Country research undertaken in: United States of America.

Keywords: social capital/networks; integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; social exclusion; dispersal policies; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Vietnam; research methods: interviews; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

D8 Simich, L. (2003). 'Negotiating boundaries of refugee resettlement: a study of settlement patterns and social support'. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 40(5), 575-591.

Research focus/aims: This paper analyses aspects of the bureaucratic process of negotiating placement and social support by and for resettled refugees in Canada.

Participants: A multiethnic sample of refugees who had made a secondary migration to Ontario from other parts of Canada.

Key findings/outcomes: Refugees do not make decisions in isolation but as members of extended social networks, including family, friends and ethnic community members. Through secondary migration, refugees maximised their opportunities for social support in ways meaningful to them, irrespective of the logistic problems that result for the resettlement system. The bureaucratic imperative of filling predetermined refugee targets for various provincial communities sometimes takes precedence over satisfying refugees' needs for social support. Family members and friends who are often considered essential contacts by the refugees are not considered 'close' by the bureaucracy.

Recommendations: The relative importance of qualitative social and cultural factors, as opposed to economic factors, needs to be reconsidered.

Scope: The study focuses on refugees from 12 ethnic groups who had moved to Ontario from other parts of Canada, mainly Quebec. A quarter never went to their original destination; more than 30 percent stayed in their original destination less than two weeks and the remainder stayed between two weeks and a year.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: social capital/networks; role of host country; transnational/diaspora; dispersal policies; research methods: interviews; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; refugees.

D9 Simich, L., Mawani, F., Wu, F. and Noor, A. (2004). Meanings of social support, coping, and help-seeking strategies among immigrants and refugees in Canada. Toronto: Joint Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigration and Settlement.

Research focus/aims: The study reports on the meanings of social support for Chinese immigrants and Somali refugees in Canada.

Participants: Somali refugees and Chinese immigrants in Canada.

Key findings/outcomes: Refugees appear to be at a greater financial disadvantage than immigrants. Among the Somali interviewees, 19 out of 20 said they did not have enough money for daily living, whereas only three of 20 Chinese said that they did not. Most Somali respondents had been in Canada from five to ten or more years, whereas the majority of Chinese respondents had been in Canada less than four years.

Somalis offered holistic definitions of social support that included financial, emotional, psychological and moral support. Some participants perceived support as having an all-encompassing form, by which those in need are assisted completely.

Balancing dependence and independence was an issue for Somali interviewees. The Somali community in Toronto has grown over the years, and the norms of social reciprocity among extended family members remain strong. Somalis compared social support in Canada and their homeland. They contrasted the notions of social support based on traditional norms of interdependence and reciprocity, on the one hand, with the norms and practices of a fragmented, impersonal Canadian social service bureaucracy on the other.

Culture and context both shape perceptions of social support and help-seeking. Meanings of social support are not only defined by the culture and context of the sending society, but also by the culture and context of the receiving society. Socioeconomic circumstances, structural barriers and the receiving society's responses shape coping strategies and help-seeking behaviours. Personal resources, such as newcomers' attitudes and cultural, educational and life experiences, also play a role in shaping coping mechanisms. Effective mechanisms of social support are those that are enabling and help newcomers to overcome barriers, both individual and systemic.

Recommendations: Canada needs not only to recognise how valuable informal social networks are, but also to use them. Alone, however, they are insufficient because they cannot fully counter the inequities and disadvantages associated with refugee status or the structural barriers that tend to trap refugee newcomers in poverty.

Service providers need to place greater emphasis on improving institutional attitudes towards immigrants and refugees. A change in public attitudes could be addressed through continued education and training of the Canadian public and public servants.

Facilitating traditional forms of social support delivery within Canadian institutions may help to enhance supportive services for many newcomers and has the added benefit of capacity building in the community.

Scope: The paper draws on a larger national qualitative study. Methods included in-depth interviews with service providers and Chinese immigrants and Somali refugees plus six focus groups with service providers and policy makers to explore policy and programme recommendations.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; social capital/networks; ethnic/cultural identity; role of host country; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Somalia; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.

D10 Suzuki, R. (2005). Social capital and the significance of premigration context among Burmese refugee communities in Canada. CERIS Working Paper No. 36. Toronto: Joint Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigration and Settlement.

Research focus/aims: The paper explores the potential for social capital development among immigrant and/or refugee communities that have been subject to trauma and premigration contexts of distrust and violence.

Participants: Burmese refugees in Winnipeg and Toronto.

Key findings/outcomes: The study found few culturally acceptable sources of support for Burmese people suffering from mental illness in Canada. Burmese refugee communities had limited conflict resolution and negotiation skills. They were also unable to secure adequate employment or social connections to the Canadian mainstream. The jobs they held generally involved either physical labour or factory work. Some of those with higher education and longer stays in Canada were beginning to enter computer-related industries. Discrimination was a significant hurdle. Accessing settlement services was difficult, and the lack of Burmese-speaking staff at service delivery agencies was a serious deterrent.

Recommendations: The report includes recommendations for policy makers, service providers and the Burmese communities.

Scope: The research adopted a participatory action research approach, which called for ongoing review of research questions and objectives. The researcher used semi-structured interviews, group interviews and direct observation to gather data.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; social capital/networks; role of host country; social exclusion; health/wellbeing; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Burma; refugees; research methods: ethnographic; research methods: interviews; refugees.

D11 Tseng, W. (2004). 'The structure and role of ethnic community organizations in social adjustment and the development of social capital in Chinese and Vietnamese immigrant communities'. Abstract only. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 64(10), 3857-A.

Research focus/aims: The thesis examines the resources and networks of ethnic community-based organisations and their impact on social adjustment and community empowerment needs of Chinese and Vietnamese immigrant communities.

Participants: Four refugee community organisations in California.

Key findings/outcomes: The findings suggest that government agencies and ethnic community elites have the most control and influence over the mission, programmes and viability of ethnic community organisations and provide key organisational financial legitimacy and human resources. Ethnic community organisations are not passive players, but experienced hands in the immigrant service industry and are resilient and flexible to political and fiscal challenges. While the organisations can provide community leadership, social adjustment, cultural preservation, political empowerment and community building resources to their members, they can also restrict members of the ethnic community from full incorporation in American society. Building and sustaining American mainstream and home country resource networks can help to bridge barriers and build up ethnic community capacity. For Chinese and Vietnamese community organisations and their respective ethnic communities, maintaining ethnic solidarity and mainstream incorporation are both essential to their status and mobility in American society.

Recommendations: None in abstract.

Scope: This is a small-scale study of four organisations using participant observation, key informant interviews and collection of documentary materials.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; host country/region: United States; source country/region: China; source country/region: Vietnam; migrants, including refugees; research methods: ethnographic; migrants, including refugees.

D12 Williams, L. (2006). 'Social networks of refugees in the United Kingdom: tradition, tactics and new community spaces'. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 32(5), 865-879.

Research focus/aims: The research explores the social networks of refugees, including cross-national networks and networks within the United Kingdom.

Participants: Refugees of mixed ethnicities living in a socially deprived district in southeast England.

Key findings/outcomes: Many informants found it hard to describe their own lives without referring to their family and group relationships. Refugees had friends and contacts locally, nationally, in other countries of exile and in their country of origin. Separation by distance was less of an issue than ease and cost of contact. Remittances were often sent back to home countries, and funds were frequently sent around the country and across borders.

Networks within the United Kingdom were useful for finding specific information. Transnational networks had high levels of 'intensity' and carried a high degree of social obligation. It was difficult for refugees to refuse the requests of members of these networks.

Networks of weak ties can be made up of friends, fellow nationals and British nationals. They can also be useful in obtaining information and support.

Recommendations: The government should investigate the benefits of supporting individuals and their networks to support new arrivals.

Scope: This research adopted a qualitative, ethnographic approach including participant observation, a narrative story-telling approach and ego-centred network analysis. Fifteen individuals had an in-depth involvement; another 45 had some involvement. The 15 had been in the United Kingdom from one to six years and were of mixed ethnicity.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: social capital/networks; transnationalism/diaspora; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

D13 Zetter, R., Griffiths, D. and Sigona, N. (2003). Refugee community-based organisations in the UK: a social capital analysis. Oxford: Brookes University.

Research focus/aims: The study focuses on the capacity of refugee community-based organisations (RCOs) in the United Kingdom to respond to policy changes and the barriers and resource constraints affecting their development. The research also addresses theoretical questions including the role of networks, resources and social capital in the formation of refugee organisations.

Participants: A sample of 40 RCOs in four locations in the United Kingdom and semi-structured interviews with NGO personnel involved with refugee community development and with representatives of statutory authorities.

Key findings/outcomes: The paper highlights the changing role and rationale of RCOs in the UK, reacting to the increasingly hostile policy environment in which they operate. A focus on the immediate needs of asylum seekers rather than the longer-term settlement needs of refugees is an inevitable reaction to the withdrawal of state support that has occurred over the previous ten years.

RCOs in the regions are 'small' (staffing less than four, funding typically well below £50,000 pa), whereas, in London, RCOs are mainly 'medium' sized (average of eight staff, funding between £50,000 to £250,000 pa). This variation indicates the heterogeneity of the RCO sector and a high degree of structural instability. A solid core of established organisations is surrounded by a periphery of volatile semi-secure and insecure organisations competing for shrinking financial support. The basic activity of most of the organisations is in providing advice and signposting to the statutory authorities. Only the minority of organisations offered more specialised services - generally the larger, better-funded organisations that had built up expertise over a number of years. There is considerably more diversity in the services provided in London than in the regions.

The dispersal of asylum seekers in the UK has stimulated a proliferation of RCO formation in new localities where no existing community 'foothold' exists, but this is a response to crisis and social exclusion. The paper distinguishes between formal and informal networking in refugee communities and notes that some refugee groups are unwilling to formalise their networks. They may see RCOs as perpetuating the marginality of the communities they serve. Informal networks may be equal, if not more powerful, agencies of service provision and support, especially in the economic sphere.

Recommendations: The paper argues that the analysis of social capital in refugee communities should not seek to celebrate and reinforce what arises, in large part, from desperation. The broader institutional and structural level needs to be brought back into focus. The paper also draws attention to the ambiguities of a restrictive immigration policy set alongside an invitation to integration once people are accepted as refugees.

Scope: This paper is drawn from a larger study and applies theoretical thinking to a small empirical base. Findings are derived from extensive academic and grey literature on RCOs, primary data from fieldwork drawing on a sample of 40 RCOs in the study locations and semi-structured interviews with NGO personnel involved with refugee community development and with representatives of statutory authorities.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; social capital/networks; social exclusion; dispersal policies; host country/region: United Kingdom research methods: discussion paper; refugees.

D14 Zetter, R. Griffiths, D., Sigona, N. Flynn, D. Pasha, T. and Beynon, R. (2006). Immigration, social cohesion and social capital: What are the links? York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

Research focus/aims: The paper explores the relationship between social capital, social cohesion and immigration.

Participants: Representatives of migrant associations in the UK.

Key findings/outcomes: The paper argues that policies in the UK tilt firmly in the direction of inclusivity and assimilation as the instruments of social cohesion for new and settled migrant communities, with less recognition and celebration of difference.

The authors note that refugees, as 'social capitalists' turn to one another to reconstruct their networks in exile as a means of support and to establish a meaningful sense of social life and identity. However, these organisations perform an essentially defensive role in an environment of hostile immigration policy. In that role, the social capital constitutes the currency of differentiation, fragmentation and exclusion, rather than as a vehicle of social cohesion. Forming social capital can be a process of delineating boundaries among subgroups of a larger ethnic minority, as much as a process of stitching into the mainstream of social policy on cohesion.

If 'difference' is significant, the ability to sustain multiple identities is part of contemporary social life for migrant groups. Different statuses - gender, legal, ethnicity, length of residence - mediate the existence of very different forms of social capital among migrant groups.

The authors argue that a social capital perspective:

• highlights the complexity and localisation of power practices by which communities form and cohere
• highlights the significance of 'soft' variables such as social networks, leadership, community bonds and trust as the basis of a social cohesion policy premised on developing social relations between different groups
• calls attention to the importance of governance in community formation and the development of community relations, including providing public space for this to happen
• reveals how the activity and resources of migrant organisations often appear to be used as the media for advocacy, activism and access to public resources, and less as an instrument of cohesion
• shows how migrant communities can usually accommodate multiple social affiliations at different times and at different levels of governance
• reminds that associational activity among communities is a dynamic process
• emphasises that social cohesion for migrant groups is contingent on the wider policy discourse on immigration.

Recommendations: No specific recommendations included.

Scope: The paper is based on a literature review and interviews with a sample of 19 immigrant organisations.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; social capital/networks; host country/region: United Kingdom; research methods: review; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.

Community participation

D15 Goodkind, J. and Foster-Fishman, P. (2002). 'Integrating diversity and fostering independence: ecological lessons learned about refugee participation in multiethnic communities'. Journal of Community Psychology, 30(4), 389-409.

Research focus/aims: The research aimed to understand the participation experiences of Hmong residents living in multiethnic housing developments.

Participants: 54 Hmong refugees who had been living in the United States for an average of 12 years.

Key findings/outcomes: Three-quarters of residents wanted to be more involved in their communities but often felt precluded because of barriers. They valued participation because it involved working together, helping others, raising children together, maintaining good relations among community members and being a part of the community. Participation was also important for personal reasons, including acquiring knowledge, gaining experience, raising awareness about their community and being involved with their children. Some believed that participation would ensure that other people would like and respect them, know them and help them.

Participation was limited by language barriers and experience of discrimination. Many Hmong residents also felt they did not have the capacity to participate. Some lacked time because of work and family commitments. The settings of meetings did not provide resources and supports to enable Hmong participation. Notices were in English, translators were never present and lack of childcare was a barrier.

The imposition of 'individual' constructs of empowerment on communities with 'collective' ideologies can also be a barrier to involvement.

Recommendations: Communities need to recognise that barriers to participation are often due to the failure of communities to provide appropriate supports. Multiethnic communities need to work towards creating settings that are inclusive of all communities so that genuine interdependence can be developed.

Scope: The research gathered data through a structured interview with 54 Hmong, based around seven open-ended questions. Interviews were mostly in Hmong.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: community participation; social capital/networks; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; women; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Laos; refugees; research methods: interviews.

D16 Sigona, N. and Torre, A. (2005). Positive contributions: being a refugee in Britain. London: Refugee Housing Association.

Research focus/aims: The research aimed to show, through their voices, that refugees and asylum seekers contribute positively to British society, not just in economic terms, but also socially and culturally.

Participants: Volunteers from Refugee Housing Association in the United Kingdom.

Key findings/outcomes: This research was conducted shortly after the 2005 general election and the London terrorist bombings of that year, both events that the authors suggest prompted negative public opinion and media coverage of refugees and asylum seekers (and did not include a refugee or asylum seeker perspective). The author describe how a "security and control approach to asylum" was strengthened at that time, and research undertaken by Lewis (2005)^[7] that found that the United Kingdom public generally did not believe the majority of asylum seekers to be genuine in their fear of persecution, while also having little knowledge of international issues and the drivers of asylum.

Through their research, the authors further develop the concepts that refugees and asylum seekers contribute positively through contributing multiple points of view and an attitude that makes people more likely to question assumptions. In addition, once they become part of our common shared values, their knowledge, skills and resources enhance society as a whole. Finally, refugees, asylum seekers and other forced migrants bring direct and actual experience of the "highly interrelated social and economic processes occurring at a global level" that result in forced migration (Castles and Miller 2003;^[8] Bauman 2004.^[9])

The main findings of this report are presented as direct quotes from the refugee participants under the general heading of 'Being a refugee in Britain'. Quotes are grouped into themes.

Points relevant to the integration of refugees:

• Integration is about feeling part of a community and taking part in the social activities of that community. It is important to get to actively know the people you are living among and not isolating oneself.
• The importance of keeping one's identity or culture including fear of losing native language.
• Parents compromising on their preferred life and clothing for their children.
• Parents may have an intergenerational perspective, recognising that their children are learning and can speak English more easily than they can.
• Using different languages at different times or settings (for example, arguing about politics in English but using native tongue to argue personal matters).
• There can be many new challenges, including different understandings about what is right and wrong in different cultural settings (for example, sex education), differences in the role of women and the appropriateness of activities (education, living alone, driving).
• Arrival in Britain does not always mean you have fully left your country - you can be trapped in the middle, negotiating identity between two worlds.
• Supporting the role of newcomers in local community groups is an important tool for promoting community cohesion. Refugees and asylum seekers can contribute significantly, and at the same time, their participation can facilitate the process of settlement.
• For some refugees and asylum seekers, there is a desire to repay some of the support they received in the United Kingdom. Repayment can take many forms, for example, working and paying tax, helping others to settle or working towards improving community relations.
• Feeling at home is a crucial step in the process of settlement. Individuals can 'feel settled in the UK' yet also maintain an affiliation to one or more previous home countries. Buying a house is an important achievement and indicates a will to settle and stay. Home making requires a certain degree of safety and security.
• For many participants, churches were familiar spaces in their lives. As landmarks in a cityscape, they physically guide refugees as they discover new territory. They can provide opportunities for socialising with people from their own country or religious group or meeting new people, as well as being a source of support and comfort.

Recommendations: No recommendations included.

Scope: The research is largely descriptive. It is based on four workshops with 44 participants, in-depth individual interviews with 20 participants and the use of diaries and photographs. The range of methodologies gave participants who had differences in literacy and varying levels of fluency in English more options to communicate.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: community participation; ethnic/cultural identity; religion; language maintenance; religion; housing; social capital/networks; women; children/youth; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

Role of host country

D17 Department for Communities and Local Government. (2007). Connecting communities in neighbourhoods: the 'what works guide' for organisations working with refugees, asylum seekers and migrant workers in neighbourhood renewal areas. London: Department for Communities and Local Government.

Research focus/aims: A 'what works guide' for organisations working with refugees, asylum seekers and migrant workers in neighbourhood renewal areas

Participants: The guide targets all organisations working with refugees, asylum seekers and migrant workers, including local authority asylum support teams and other local public services. It is aimed at all partnerships involved in the delivery of neighbourhood renewal (Local Strategic Partnerships, Neighbourhood Wardens, Neighbourhood Management Pathfinders and New Deal for Communities) in areas that have refugee and asylum seeker and migrant worker populations.

Key findings/outcomes: Many refugees and asylum seekers have been housed in areas of depressed housing demand, including a number of neighbourhood renewal areas, as a result of the government's policy to disperse asylum seekers outside London and the southeast. The booklet describes various communities, their rights and likely needs, as well as programmes, funding sources and services available to meet those needs.

Recommendations: The guide urges co-ordination and co-operation among agencies and gives examples of some successful initiatives.

Scope: A resource for community groups and local and central government agencies.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: community participation; role of host country; social capital/networks; dispersal policies; role of host country; host country/region: United Kingdom; research methods: review; migrants, including refugees.

D18 Ferris, E. (2001). 'Building hospitable communities'. Refuge: Canada's Periodical on Refugees, 20(1), 13-19.

Research focus/aims: The paper explores global trends in the receptivity of communities to refugees and migrants.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The author identifies a number of trends in response to increased refugee numbers: growing public debate about immigrants; increasingly restrictive policies; rising xenophobia and racism; public confusion about different types of migrants; tension between ethnic groups and questions of identity.

She argues that, in order to create communities that value diversity, action is needed at government level, in the media and by civil society. Government needs to pass laws prohibiting discrimination and providing for rapid naturalisation of refugees. She believes that most refugees see citizenship as an important stage in the process of refugee integration.

Decisions about placement of resettled refugees can have a long-term impact. The receptivity of the host community needs to be taken into account. Policies that support language training, affordable housing, job placement, vocational training, education and access to healthcare and other benefits are also important, as are policies recognising the credentials of migrants and refugees. Sensitisation of public workers in all domains to the specific needs and cultures of refugees is also important.

The media can play a role by offering balanced coverage. Civil society, including service providers, employers and ethnic-based associations are also important in building hospitable communities.

Recommendations: None are included.

Scope: This is a reflective paper rather than a piece of research.

Country research undertaken in: Not applicable.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; citizenship; role of host country; social exclusion; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; housing; community cohesion; research methods: discussion paper; migrants, including refugees.

D19 Ghorashi, H. (2005). 'Agents of change or passive victims: the impact of welfare states (the case of the Netherlands) on refugees'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 18(2), 181-198.

Research focus/aims: The paper explores the impact of a regulated society such as the Netherlands on the lives of refugees in general and on those of Iranian women in particular.

Participants: Iranian women who arrived in the Netherlands in the 1980s and 1990s.

Key findings/outcomes: The author argues that the explicit use of the concept of forced migration can lead to overlooking aspects of choice, especially limited choice. Many assume that refugees have no agency. In the context of highly regulated states, this image is stronger. Restrictive entry and reception policies are designed to protect society from bogus asylum seekers but have the effect that all refugees are seen as untrustworthy until otherwise proven. In the case of refugee women, the combination of gender and ethnicity makes the aspect of passivity and victimisation even stronger. According to these images, Dutch women are modern and emancipated, while Iranian women are seen as oppressed and traditional.

Iranian women who entered the Netherlands in the 1980s had better access to education opportunities and jobs than those who entered in the 1990s when the Reception of Asylum Seekers Regulations were introduced. The latter had to wait sometimes several years to be granted residence permits and access to language training and other amenities. This made refugees state dependents and reminds former refugees that they are 'unwelcome guests' in Dutch society.

Recommendations: The paper makes no specific recommendations.

Scope: The paper draws on interviews, secondary sources and informal visits to asylum centres as well as the author's own experience.

Country research undertaken in: Netherlands.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; role of host country; social capital/networks; education/training; economic participation; women; host country/region: Netherlands; source country/region: Iran; research methods: ethnographic; research methods: interviews; refugees.

D20 Hollands, M. (2001). 'Upon closer acquaintance: the impact of direct contact with refugees on Dutch hosts'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 14(3), 295-314.

Research focus/aims: The paper explores the impact of direct contact with refugees on voluntary refugee workers and language tutors. It asks what motivates participants to assist refugees and what the effects of contact are.

Participants: Voluntary refugee workers and language tutors in the Netherlands, working with refugees in the initial settlement phase.

Key findings/outcomes: Motivation among volunteers was driven by: prior experience either by themselves or in their family; identification with refugees, or being able to imagine what their situation might be like; humanitarian commitment and self-interest i.e. wanting to give meaning to their lives; and an interest in intercultural contact.

The impacts of direct contact included for most a move from constructed images towards more differentiated views, for others, there was a risk of disillusionment, and for some, there was a growing awareness of differences in Dutch tolerance. The authors noted that humanitarian commitment without political awareness could result in misunderstanding rather than more understanding. Participants believed that their influence was limited to the people in their immediate surroundings.

Recommendations: Undoing structural causes of prejudice and xenophobia requires alternative policies that express more openness and courage than those existing at present.

Scope: Data was drawn from ten focus group discussions with voluntary workers who work with refugees in the early stages of settlement.

Country research undertaken in: Netherlands.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; role of host country; social exclusion; host country/region: Netherlands; research methods: interviews; refugees.

D21 Vas Dev, S. (2002). 'The reluctant host: the sociocultural impact of refugees on developing communities'. Mots Pluriels, 21, 1-5. Retrieved on 12 August 2008 from www.arts.uwa.edu.au/MotsPluriels/MP2102s.html.

Research focus/aims: Discusses impact/consequences refugees pose for host nations within the developing world. Headings include 'The host nation', 'Host perceptions regarding the integrity and security of communities in the face of mass refugee influxes' and 'The role of common ethnicity and culture in shaping the sociocultural impact on host societies'.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: General sociocultural impact of a mass refugee influx on a host society is shaped by the relationship between refugees and host. This is shaped by a range of factors including common ethnic and cultural affiliations between refugees and hosts, as well as beliefs and expectation held by the host community and refugees regarding the duration of asylum and their chances for repatriation.

The report highlights problems as well as potential benefits such as increased access to infrastructure provided by UNHCR and NGOs.

Recommendations: The author suggests that UNHCR steps for minimising security issues and reducing tensions (as outlined in the UNHCR booklet Handbook for emergencies) could make a difference. These include arranging regular meetings between the representatives of refugees/local communities, sensitising local populations to the plight of refugees through radio/TV and sensitising the refugees to local customs/traditions.

Scope: A discussion piece.

Country research undertaken in: Australia.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; role of host country; research methods: discussion paper; refugee

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