E. Social exclusion

E1 Ager, A., Malcolm, M., Sadollah, S. and May, F. (2002). 'Community contact and mental health amongst socially isolated refugees in Edinburgh'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 15(1), 71-79.

Research focus/aims: The paper analyses experiences of humiliation among refugees and seeks to understand why and how they happen.

Participants: 25 refugees and asylum seekers in Edinburgh.

Key findings/outcomes: More than half the participants had been resident in the United Kingdom for more than two years; the longest time was eight years. While 92 percent of refugees reported having social contact outside the home, only 19 percent had established contacts outside refugee networks and language classes. Just over half (54 percent) had scores on the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale indicative of a diagnosis of an anxiety disorder, with 42 percent scoring at levels indicative of a diagnosis of depression. Among this group, levels of anxiety and depression increased with length of time in the United Kingdom. Social contacts outside the home were generally infrequent and, while their frequency was not found to be associated with lower levels of mental health symptoms, refugees themselves prioritised increased social contact above assistance with practical issues and the provision of counselling. They expressed particular interest in contact with local individuals and groups that could serve as a bridge into host country customs and practices.

Recommendations: The prioritisation of needs suggests that:

• refugee resettlement following a 'dispersal' strategy should explicitly seek both to facilitate family and wider co-ethnic links
• mechanisms for bridging support from indigenous, majority populations need to be identified.

Scope: A small-scale local study based on interviews with 25 refugees and asylum seekers resettling in Edinburgh identified as at particular risk of social isolation.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom - Scotland.

Keywords: social capital/networks; social exclusion; dispersal policies; health/wellbeing; host country/region: Scotland; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; refugees, including asylum seekers.

E2 Butcher, A., Spoonley, P. and Trlin, A. (2006). Being accepted: the experience of discrimination and social exclusion by immigrants and refugees in New Zealand. Occasional Paper No. 13. New Settlers Programme, Massey University, Palmerston North.

Research focus/aims: This report identifies the nature of discrimination experienced and/or perceived by new settlers (including refugees) in New Zealand.

Participants: 19 participants who took part in one of four focus groups held in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch, New Zealand. One group included four refugees (each from a different source country, namely Pakistan, Somalia, Iran and Afghanistan).

Key findings/outcomes: This paper presents a discussion of the concepts of prejudice, discrimination, racism and legislation, and then a brief review of discrimination research in New Zealand. Findings relating to refugees include that refugees are among the top three groups that 750 participants in a Human Rights Commission Survey (2003)^[10] thought there was a great deal of and some discrimination against. The authors comment that refugees are often seen as 'problem' arrivals and are the subject of political campaigns to reduce their numbers or exclude them entirely.

In a survey of research on immigrant and refugee mental health, Abbott (1997)^[11] notes that feelings of being discriminated against, inadequate language skills and conflicts concerning perceived moral standards were frequently identified as postmigration cultural stressors and that financial, cultural and loneliness/boredom stressors were closely linked to increased rates of mental disorder. Prejudice and discrimination are important postmigration stressors for refugees in particular.

Focus group participants identified three main arenas in which discrimination was experienced or perceived: in employment; in accessing goods and services (notably education and housing); and in neighbourhoods. Additional discrimination was also perceived or experienced by Muslims or those of Middle Eastern origin.

Of the three main arenas of discrimination, the authors considered employment to be most important, as it also has repercussions for other areas or aspects of settlement or resettlement. In this arena, discrimination was experienced or perceived in pre-employment and in the process of acquiring employment as well as in the labour force. Significant issues included: the recognition of overseas qualifications; the desirability of New Zealand qualifications and work experience; applications procedures; the sense of being an outsider; and language and accent.

Those from visible ethnic minority groups and/or the most different cultural backgrounds faced the most difficulty in gaining employment in New Zealand. The authors point to the complex effects of discrimination on settlement. For example, parents may be unable to earn sufficient money (in part, due to discrimination) in their employment to support the family, resulting in children being asked to contribute to the household. In turn, the children may also experience discrimination in this arena, both in terms of available work and remuneration. The study also indicated that, if young people are required to contribute to supporting the household, they may opt for employment over higher education.

Discrimination in accessing goods and services (education and housing) was more likely to be experienced or perceived by refugees or older migrants. In some instances, schools were not perceived as accommodating of difference or being cross-culturally aware, and some landlords were reluctant to let to refugees and certain immigrant groups. Language was the greatest barrier, and the lack of access or availability of information in languages other than English was identified as a factor in this. A lack of disposable income was another factor.

Neighbourhood discrimination appeared to stem from host communities' lack of knowledge and understanding about the backgrounds and situations of new settlers and the nature and importance of ethnic residential concentrations and was believed to be fuelled by negative media reporting. In general, however, both refugees and other immigrants had found New Zealanders to be friendly and helpful in their neighbourhood social interactions.

Muslims or those from the Middle East had encountered discrimination relating directly to the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 and thought that this made acquiring employment particularly difficult. They suggested that this discrimination was significantly propagated or maintained through negative media reporting or images of their groups.

Recommendations: When asked about what could be done about the difficulties of discrimination, prejudice and social exclusion in New Zealand, the three courses of action identified by the participants were:

• promoting the development of knowledge and understanding in the host population about the backgrounds and situations of new settlers
• promoting equality in access to goods and services and in social interactions through providing education about the Human Rights Act and the Race Relations Act
• improving communication between New Zealanders and new settlers.

Scope: Findings were derived from focus group interviews and a review of annual reports of the Office of the Race Relations Commissioner and from the New Zealand and international literature in this field.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; economic participation; health/wellbeing; housing; older refugees; children/youth; research methods: interviews; research methods: review; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; migrants, including refugees.

E3 Chile, L. (2005). 'Locating and belonging: transition from refugee to citizen'. In Y. Tasew (Ed.), Diasporic ghosts: a discourse on exile and refugee issues (pp. 254-291). Wellington: First Edition Publishers.

Research focus/aims: This essay critically analyses refugees' attempts to integrate into a new society, based on New Zealand case studies.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The author suggests that locating and belonging consists of the process of refugees being included and building their lives as part of the community. This needs to involve their participation in the activities of the community and an ability to understand and share in the history, culture, values and customs of the host community and culture. Language and communications are critical to this. A limited capacity to communicate in the local language may result in racism and discrimination and the desire to locate with others from the same region in order to create a community. This may result in refugee communities being isolated and reduce integration, and may create ethnocultural enclaves and ghettos of poverty and deprivation of citizens without citizenship.

The author states that citizenship commonly refers to a person's membership of a nation state and being availed of the rights, privileges and protection of that state. However, the concept of transition from refugee to citizen is not just about obtaining the passport of the host country but is about rights and responsibilities that relate to the active productive participation in the life of one's community and society. Lack of effective participation invariably constitutes non-citizenship, which is exclusion (the process of social alienation or disaffiliation where the individual is unable to effectively engage in functional relationships within and with the community and society).

The author argues that most refugees experience exclusion rather than inclusion and that exclusion is one of the primary reasons why people from refugee backgrounds, including children born to resettled refugees, consider themselves refugees despite many years of residence in the host country. A lack of language ability may also affect ability to participate effectively in democratic processes of community and nation (for example, in general and local body elections). It may also affect ability to get sustainable employment, which, alongside access to income, provides social legitimacy and social status.

The author's analysis of resettlement programmes concludes that most programmes treat refugee resettlement as if it is an emergency relief programme rather than a longer-term development programme that creates capacity within the communities to enable people to move from positions where they are dependent on the charity of service agencies and government benefits to become active participating citizens of their communities and society. The author discusses features of a community development approach that involved the conscientisation of host communities and community empowerment.

Recommendations:

• A deliberate process of raising people's awareness (community conscientisation) about diversity must be undertaken as part of the resettlement process to prepare host communities. This process is about creating awareness to enable individuals and groups within host communities to make connections between their own circumstances and struggles with those of others in the larger context of the society in which they live and engage in every day activities.
• The concept of empowerment through refugee development is central to the journey of citizenship. This involves individuals and refugee communities accessing political, social and economic resources to enable them to move from situations of socioeconomic marginalisation and political exclusion to active effective participation in the functions of citizenship. The author advocates a participatory approach in the decision making processes of organisations working with refugees as well as an increased participation by refugee communities in the planning, decision making and control of settlement processes and outcomes.

Scope: An essay including information on international refugee trends and on source countries of New Zealand refugees over the years sourced from UNHCR and the New Zealand Immigration Service.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; definition of refugees; citizenship; civic/political participation; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; host country/region: New Zealand; research methods: discussion paper; refugees.

E4 Fangen, K. (2006). 'Humiliation experienced by Somali refugees in Norway'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 19(1), 69-93.

Research focus/aims: The paper analyses experiences of humiliation among refugees and seeks to understand why and how they happen.

Participants: Somali refugees in Norway.

Key findings/outcomes: Humiliation between the majority and minority groups fell into the categories of:

• misunderstandings because of language and cultural difficulties
• lack of knowledge of rights
• lack of knowledge concerning routines common in the welcoming of new refugees
• mismatch between expectations of how to be treated and the extent of different services and benefits
• stigmatisation, prejudices and racism that might lead to disrespect and disbelief.

Intra-minority humiliation can take the form of:

• continuation of conflicts during a war period, as well as continuation of traditional discrimination against minorities in the home country
• harassment or humiliating over-protection of girls, often as a counter-reaction to girls' changing behaviour and environment in a new country.

Recommendations: These different kinds of humiliation-triggering situations can best be prevented by:

• communication of rights to newly arrived refugees in order to adjust expectations
• clearer communication of why things are said and done - openness about motives and the logic behind them
• closer follow-up in order to overcome the first problems related to language and misunderstanding due to cultural differences
• more balanced portrayal of minorities in the media, including the well-functioning persons - the 25 percent who have a job or are educating themselves
• self-help groups to overcome war conflicts and clan disputes
• follow-up of families - both girls and parents - when harassment occurs, making use of Somali resource persons in such cases.

In general, more use of clear and informative vocally transmitted welcome information, culturally sensitive follow-up and use of bridge builders - natural helpers with the same minority background - are useful methods in order to decrease humiliation.

Scope: This is a discursive paper based on participatory observation, focus groups and interviews with 27 Somalis and 20 Norwegian officials.

Country research undertaken in: Norway.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; role of host country; social exclusion; children/youth; women; host country/region: Norway; source country/region: Somalia; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.

E5 Humpage, L. (2001). 'Systemic racism: refugee, resettlement, and education policy in New Zealand'. Refuge: Canada's Periodical on Refugees, 19(6), 33-44.

Research focus/aims: This paper explores ways in which poorly formulated refugee and resettlement policy has resulted in quota refugees being favoured over others in New Zealand.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The focus is on the institutional racism embedded in organisational practices and procedures, which either inadvertently or deliberately discriminate against 'others'. The author refers to quota refugees, asylum seekers, and humanitarian and family reunification refugees and notes differences in entitlements. She also refers to chronic under-funding of resettlement services and poor co-ordination between refugee policy and resettlement services. She refers to the lack of free ESOL education for refugees, the lack of adaptation of teaching methods in schools and lack of information and policy guidance for schools.

Recommendations: The paper has no specific recommendations.

Scope: The paper reviews policies and draws on research conducted with Somali students in Christchurch. The discussion is primarily at the policy level.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; role of host country; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: Somalia; research methods: discussion paper; refugees, including asylum seekers.

E6 Marginson, M. (1999). 'Immigrant and refugee women as victims of crime'. Proceedings of the Support for Victims of Crime: Responding to the Challenges of Diversity: Different Cultures, Different Needs Conference, April, 1999 (pp. 44-52). Victims Referral and Assistance Service, Victoria. (Cited in Nam [I5].)

Research focus/aims: Domestic violence among immigrant and refugee women.

Participants: Southeast Asian women refugees and migrants.

Key findings/outcomes: Unlike other immigrant groups in Australia, Southeast Asian women have higher victimisation rates than men, and with the exception of the Vietnamese, they are more likely to be killed by someone born in a country other than their own. They lack knowledge about domestic violence and assault laws, about the role of the Police and the role they play in domestic violence and/or are reluctant to seek Police intervention. They also lack knowledge of and/or are reluctant to use community services. They cannot necessarily rely on kin for support or intervention. Many have experienced racism.

Recommendations: Strategies should be directed at changing organisational environments, sensitising service providers and political institutions, empowering the community through community education and lobbying policy decision makers. Community education should be undertaken in collaboration with ethnic communities and be appropriately resourced.

Scope: Draws on findings of a survey of 800 overseas-born victims of domestic violence.

Country research undertaken in: Australia.

Keywords: social capital/networks; role of host countries; social exclusion; health/wellbeing; host country/region: Australia; source country/region: Southeast Asia; research methods: survey; refugees.

E7 Mestheneos, E. and Ioannidi, E. (2002). 'Obstacles to refugee integration in the European Union member states'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 15(3), 305-319.

Research focus/aims: This paper presents data from a study aimed at understanding refugee perspectives on integration in the EU. The study was undertaken in 1999 as part of a European funded project carried out by the European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE) Taskforce on Integration. This exploratory study focused on refugees' personal survival and dynamic integration strategies in 15 diverse EU member states.

Participants: 143 refugees from 15 EU member states. Gender, nationality/ethnic origins, age, marital status, legal refugee status and length of time in the host country were taken into account in selection of participants within each state.

Key findings/outcomes: The emphasis of the paper was to focus on the Europe-wide common attitudes, experiences and perceptions of integration reported by refugees, rather than on variations in the national host country context or in the characteristics of individual refugees.

Barriers to integration, together with quotes were briefly described under these headings:

• Initial reception - Quotes provided under this heading related to the scarring effects experienced by refugees who had very long delays while seeking asylum (for example, losing years through not being helped to learn to speak the host country language).
• Racism and ignorance - This included the level of knowledge about the source country, attitudes of superiority to those from less developed or poorer countries, as well as institutional racism in the areas of employment, housing, training and education.
• Social class - Many refugees come from well-educated middle and upper class backgrounds, and many could not adjust to the loss of social status. Only a few were willing or able to start again with learning the local language to the level of educated people in the host society and requalifying or learning new skills as a way of achieving or regaining lost social status.
• Culture - While being brought up within a different culture can also be positive, it more commonly represents a barrier in terms of central values and not having previously experienced individualistic Western cultures and society.
• Welfare state systems - On the one hand, countries offering substantial support to refugees through welfare support and benefits helped confirm the picture of refugees as less able, dependent and belonging to the socially excluded. On the other hand, a lack of support creates tremendous problems during initial reception and ongoing survival (for example, in accessing housing).
• Employment - Throughout the EU, refugees find difficulty obtaining legal employment. This is not just due to high levels of unemployment but also to barriers such as lack of recognition of qualifications from third world countries, making it difficult for refugees to get employment commensurate with their abilities and training. Secondly, if the mechanisms for finding work are through personal contacts (as in southern EU states), this is another form of social exclusion.
• Age and personality - Regardless of length of exile, younger people were found to be able to adapt more readily to the host society, while parents often deferred integration to the new host society to their children. Older age groups thought of the circumstances in their home country and the feasibility of return. The article suggests that some refugees are more able than others to deal with uncertainty, new cultures and situations and the traumas of the past, while others need a lot more help and support.
• Lack of information - Many refugees experienced difficulties in accessing the organisations designed to help refugees and the information provided by these organisations.

Recommendations: Governments and NGOs should involve refugees in policy planning, including the design, operation and organisation of services for them.

Scope: Refugees were identified through NGOs for refugees, refugee community organisations and interviewer networks. In-depth information was sought on the refugee experience through combining a biographical approach (where refugees were asked to tell their story from first arrival), followed by semi-structured open questions focusing on key issues such as employment, education, health, training, housing, social community relations and experiences with NGOs or other agencies.

Country research undertaken in: European Union.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; social exclusion; role of host country; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; housing; women; children/youth; host country/region: European Union; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; refugees, including asylum seekers.

E8 Pittaway, E. and Bartolomei, L. (2001). 'Refugees, race, and gender: the multiple discrimination against refugee women'. Refuge: Canada's Periodical on Refugees, 19(6), 21-32.

Research focus/aims: The paper examines the multiple forms of discrimination experienced by refugee women.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The paper discusses issues relating to the gendered nature of the refugee experience and, in particular, looks at the intersection between race and gender. It describes manifestations of racism in refugee policy and gender discrimination in social structures.

Recommendations: The paper makes 11 recommendations for inclusion in the Outcomes Document of the World Conference Against Racism in 2001. The recommendations include the need: for a 'human rights' approach to the intersection of race and gender; to involve refugee women in all aspects of conflict resolution; to collect gender disaggregated data; to make resettlement services available on an equitable basis; and to recognise that refugees and immigrants, particularly women and children, face different barriers in resettlement.

Scope: This is a high-level paper discussing the gendered nature of the refugee experience and the relationship between race and gender. Much of it deals with presettlement experience and selection processes.

Country research undertaken in: Australia.

Keywords: social exclusion; ethnic/cultural identity; women; children/youth; host country/region: Australia; research methods: discussion paper; refugees.

E9 Reitz, J. and Bannerjee, R. (2007). 'Racial inequality, social cohesion and policy issues in Canada'. In K. Banting, T. Courchene and F. Seidle (Eds.), The art of the state - belonging? diversity, recognition and shared citizenship in Canada (Vol. III, pp. 489-545). Montreal: The Institute of Research on Public Policy.

Research focus/aims: The paper examines evidence of racial inequality and discrimination and considers their relation to the social integration of racial minorities in Canada.

Participants: Survey data in Canada.

Key findings/outcomes: The authors found, that among the various ethnic groups in Canada, racial minorities have the lowest incomes and highest rates of poverty, and many members of these groups believe they have experienced discrimination based on their minority racial origins. The perception that they have been affected by discrimination is more widespread among those who have been in Canada longer and the Canadian-born generation. Research on the extent of discrimination in Canada does not resolve the relationship between perception and fact.

They conclude that non-visible minorities with greater experience in Canada are better integrated into society than are visible minorities. The negative trends among those with greater experience in Canada were most pronounced with regard to self-identification as Canadian - voting, a sense of belonging, trust in others and life satisfaction. Low earnings did not, of themselves, contribute to trends in social integration. In the second generation, all visible minorities were more negative on all indicators.

Recommendations: Policies need to be more proactive and present clear objectives to bridge the racial divide.

Scope: The paper is based on an ethnic diversity survey in 2002.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; civic/political participation; citizenship; economic participation; health/wellbeing; social exclusion; host country/region: Canada; research methods: survey; migrants, including refugees.

E10 Renaud, J., Piche, V. and Godin, J. (2003). '"One's bad and the other one's worse": differences in economic integration between asylum seekers and refugees selected abroad'. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 35(2), 86-99.

Research focus/aims: The research compares economic integration of refugees selected abroad and asylum seekers granted refugee status in Canada.

Participants: Sources were a longitudinal survey of a cohort of immigrants who came to Montreal in 1989 and a survey of people who claimed refugee status in 1994 in Quebec.

Key findings/outcomes: Both surveys considered the time of acquiring first employment and employment status after 18 months and 30 months. Landed refugees and refugee claimants had a very different labour market experience during their first few years of settlement in Montreal. Refugee claimants took longer to find their first job and were less likely to be employed after 18 months and 30 months of settlement. The authors posit two hypotheses for this. The first is that claims for asylum arose from unplanned exits caused by political unrest and physical and psychological stress. This means asylum seekers may have begun the process of reconciliation to their circumstances later than refugees selected abroad. The other hypothesis is based on the stigmatising or marginalising impacts that claiming refugee status in Canada creates.

Recommendations: The authors recommend that government resources should be devoted to providing better support so as to accelerate procedures for refugee claimants.

Scope: The data was based on two questionnaire-based surveys with 113 and 407 respondents respectively.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; social exclusion; economic participation; health/wellbeing; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; refugees, including asylum seekers.

E11 Richmond, A. (2001). 'Refugees and racism in Canada'. Refuge: Canada's Periodical on Refugees, 19(6), 12-20.

Research focus/aims: The paper discusses institutional racism in Canada.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The paper defines racism and differentiates between macro- and micro-racism. Macro-racism is institutionalised in the barriers that states erect when controlling borders; micro-racism occurs in everyday relations of people in the workplace or neighbourhood. The author discusses legislative and institutional changes in Canada that have sought to eliminate racism and promote multiculturalism. He notes differences between theory and practice in the implementation of these statutes and their interpretations by the courts.

The author concludes that, in practice, some potential refugees and asylum seekers find it difficult to enter Canada. Those who do face further systemic discrimination, personal prejudice and structured inequality.

Recommendations: No recommendations are included.

Scope: The article is based on a review of legislation and policies and is largely a think piece.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: Social exclusion; role of host country; host country/region: Canada; research methods: review; refugees, including asylum seekers.

E12 Sobrun-Maharaj, A., Tse, S., Hoque, E. and Rossen, F. (2008). Migrant and refugee younth in New Zealand: a study of key informants. Wellington: Department of Labour.

Research focus/aims: The report sought to describe settlement and social inclusion of youth from migrant and refugee backgrounds in New Zealand by examining factors that facilitate or act as barriers to their settlement and social inclusion.

Participants: 71 informants from agencies and service providers in New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: Key informants felt that most migrant and refugee youth do not feel settled and socially included in New Zealand. The most significant issues for young people were: racism, discrimination and non acceptance; stereotypes and assumptions; issues around language retention and English competence; employment; intergenerational conflict; and identity conflict. The host population and migrant and refugee groups sometimes have different understandings of the concepts of settlement and social inclusion.

Refugee youth experienced the same barriers as migrant youth but were considered to have greater challenges with education and language and be more vulnerable due to premigration trauma. Many refugees are from visible ethnic minorities, which adds to their stress, isolation, frustration and anxiety. This can lead to mental health conditions, such as depression, which, in turn, can lead to alcohol and drug abuse, and violence and/or crime.

Facilitators of settlement include:

• positive attitudes and acceptance from an educated and informed host community
• a sense of belonging
• social support
• funding and resources to provide appropriate, accessible services
• appropriate employment
• English language proficiency and literacy
• a strong cultural base and resilience
• willingness to integrate.

The paper also refers to two models of integration. Cox (1985)^[12] identified four stages: premovement, transition, resettlement and integration; Holton and Sloan (1994)^[13] talk about resettlement - finding a job and accommodation; re-establishment - acquisition of better and more permanent accommodation; and integration - the process that leads to naturalisation.

Recommendations: The paper includes a number of recommendations to government relating to the promotion of tolerance, provision of funding and resources for support, encouraging collaboration and including young people and their communities in programme development. They also suggest that there should be more programmes for parents and compulsory and free language instruction for both parents and young people.

Scope: The report drew on interviews with 42 adult service providers and 29 experts from ethnic minority and majority groups in New Zealand.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; social capital/networks; language maintenance; role of host country; social exclusion; language acquisition/ESOL; education/training; health/wellbeing; housing; children/youth; host country/region: New Zealand; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.

E13 Soroka, S., Johnston, R. and Banting, K. (2007). 'Ties that bind? social cohesion and diversity in Canada'. In K. Banting, T. Courchene and F. Seidle (Eds.), The art of the state - belonging? diversity, recognition and shared citizenship in Canada (Vol. III, pp. 561-600). Montreal: The Institute of Research on Public Policy.

Research focus/aims: The paper explores core ideas of diversity on one side and social cohesion or integration on the other.

Participants: Canadian migrants and residents.

Key findings/outcomes: The researchers' primary focus is on ethnic diversity and religious orientation. They identify six variables related to social cohesion: pride in country; sense of belonging; interpersonal trust; social values; social networks; and voting.

The paper supports others in noting that, although newcomers from southern and eastern Europe eventually came to feel they belonged in Canada almost as much as those with ancestry in the United Kingdom and northern Europe, racially distinct minorities remained less confident that they fully belong. The values and attitudes of newcomers increasingly resembled those of the reference group of Canadian nationals, although the gap did not completely disappear. Levels of trust were persistently lower among newcomers, including among the second generation.

Recommendations: The authors stress the importance of maintaining multicultural strategies.

Scope: The paper is a quantitative study drawing on two opinion surveys - the Equality, Security and Community Survey 2002-03 and the Canadian Election Study 2004.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; religion; civic/political participation; social capital/networks; social exclusion; integration/social cohesion; community cohesion; host country/region: Canada; research methods: survey; migrants, including refugees.

E14 Spicer, N. (2008). 'Places of exclusion and inclusion: asylum seeker and refugee experiences of neighbourhoods in the UK'. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34(3), 491-510.

Research focus/aims: This paper explores asylum seekers' and refugees' experiences of place, social exclusion and social networks.

Participants: Asylum seekers and families from South Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Eastern Europe recently granted refugee status in three urban local authority areas in England.

Key findings/outcomes: Residents who were allocated housing in low-income neighbourhoods with few immigrants experienced hostility and racist harassment, limited resources, few inclusive social services and limited opportunities to develop supportive social bonds and bridges. Places of inclusion tended to be neighbourhoods with histories of immigration. Schools that were inclusive to refugee and asylum seeking children tended to be in and around neighbourhoods with large minority ethnic communities. Children also considered culturally diverse schools to be more inclusive in terms of their ability to form friendships, achieve at school and engage in after-school activities. Parents indicated that inclusive neighbourhoods helped them develop social networks, which helped them to access services and resources. Most formed social bonds only with families sharing the same religious or ethnic identity. Very few had built bridges to the wider community. Although some children developed social bonds and social bridges, most appeared to have stronger social bonds with children from similar cultural backgrounds. Inclusive neighbourhoods can have a positive effect for families but they may also limit asylum seekers' and refugees' willingness to form social bridges outside their community.

Recommendations: The author argues that the UK government needs to acknowledge both the intolerance of asylum seekers and refugees among some white and majority ethnic communities and the mitigating effect of living in an inclusive neighbourhood with a history of immigration.

Scope: A small qualitative study based on interviews with parents, children and workers from voluntary organisations.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; social exclusion; dispersal policies; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; refugees, including asylum seekers.

E15 Wrench, J., Jandi, M., Kraler, A. and Stepein, A. (2003). Migrants, minorities and employment in 15 EU member states. Vienna: European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia.

Research focus/aims: The report compares discrimination, exclusion and disadvantage among minorities and migrants in the employment sector in the EU.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: National labour markets are still highly segmented along national or ethnic lines. Third country nationals, in particular, are disproportionately often employed in low-skilled, low-paid professions and tend to have precarious employment situations. Immigrants from outside the EU are heavily concentrated in certain industrial sectors, parts of the service sector and sectors that have strong seasonal fluctuations. Women are often restricted to segments such as personal care and domestic services, cleaning, catering, health and care. Immigrant groups dominated by recent refugee flows faced extremely high unemployment rates.

Multivariate regression analysis determined that, while some factors relate to human capital, non-recognition of qualifications, structural changes in the economy and the increasing importance of social networks, a residue indicates evidence of discrimination.

Non-European (non-Western) migrants and certain minority groups are more exposed to discrimination in employment than others. Migrant women face the risk of dual discrimination. However, only a few cases come to court. The absence of specific anti-discrimination legislation and the inherent difficulty of proving discrimination in court have prevented effective legal redress against discrimination.

Recommendations: The paper notes the importance of treating discrimination at work.

Scope: The report is based on 15 national reports on the EUMC Racism and Xenophobia network.

Country research undertaken in: European Union.

Keywords: social capital/networks; social exclusion; economic participation; women; host country/region: European Union; migrants, including refugees; research methods: review.

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