5. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Economic participation
H1 Bevelander, P. and Lundh, C. (2007). Employment integration of refugees: the influence of local factors on refugee job opportunities in Sweden. Discussion Paper No. 2551. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor.
Research focus/aims: The authors investigated the importance of local conditions for the employment integration of refugees in Sweden
Participants: Refugee groups who had migrated to Sweden from 1973 onwards. It includes all immigrants from refugee countries regardless of status.
Key findings/outcomes: Local variations of refugees' integration into the labour market were partly a result of internal migration, mostly from less to more populated municipalities. Local unemployment and employment rates significantly affected refugees' chances of obtaining employment. The size of the local labour market was also significant in that refugees were more likely to find work in a bigger labour market, because of the greater variation in number of jobs (even if there is more competition for jobs). Refugees were more likely to find work in areas with lower general education and skill levels. They had more chance of being employed in industry in less population dense areas and in the private sector in larger cities. The study also found marked differences by country of origin. Refugees from Bosnia-Herzegovina, Chile and Romania were more successful than refugees from the Middle East and Africa.
Recommendations: Notes the importance of taking into account local labour market factors in making dispersal plans.
Scope: Monitors regional variations in employment integration and uses logistic regressions to estimate the effect of individual and human capital characteristics, internal migration, municipality, local labour market and economic sector factors.
Country research undertaken in: Sweden.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion; dispersal policies; economic participation; host country/region: Sweden; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; migrants, including refugees.
H2 Bevelander, P. and Veenman, J. (2006). Naturalisation and socioeconomic integration: the Case of the Netherlands. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor.
Research focus/aims: The paper focuses on two aspects of Dutch immigrants' naturalisation decisions - the acquisition of naturalisation in relation to demographic factors and socioeconomic integration, and the effect of naturalisation on employment chances and earnings in the Netherlands. Applicants are only eligible for naturalisation after five years' uninterrupted residence in the Netherlands with a valid residence permit.
Participants: A weighted subsample of respondents to the Dutch survey Social Position and Use of Public Utilities by Migrants for 2002 and 2003. This survey randomly surveys the population in 13 cities in the Netherlands and aims to describe and analyse the socioeconomic and cultural integration of the four largest immigrant groups and five largest refugee groups in the Netherlands. This analysis focuses on those aged 18-64 who had been in Netherlands for at least five years and included both immigrants and refugees. (Refugees were from Afghanistan, former Yugoslavia, Iraq, Iran and Somalia.)
Key findings/outcomes: Regression analysis was used to identify differences between groups of refugees and migrants first, in their acquisition of citizenship, and then on the effects of having citizenship on employment changes and earnings.
Acquisition of citizenship was found to be positively related to being a refugee (who had fled from war or left for political reasons or as a family reunion migrant) rather than having migrated for labour market or educational reasons where the link was weak. Women and those with longer years of residence also had a significantly higher probability of gaining citizenship than other immigrants. Contrary to expectation, participation in an 'integration' programme did not make acquiring citizenship any more likely. Higher education and education being received in the Netherlands also had a strong impact on the probability of naturalising.
An initial analysis suggests that Dutch citizenship correlates with both chances of being employed and having higher monthly earnings. Further analysis finds that having a higher education level and having being educated in the Netherlands had the greatest impact on employment chances. Immigrants from Somalia and Iraq had the lowest probability of being employed; those from the former Yugoslavia and Turkey had the highest. Among refugee groups, having Dutch citizenship was highly correlated with employment rates and wages for women but not for men. The authors conclude that a weak but significant citizenship premium can be found for refugees in the Dutch labour market.
Recommendations: None included.
Scope: The data is drawn from a survey of Social Position and the Use of Public Utilities by Migrants for the years 2002 and 2003. The findings are based on multivariate analysis.
Country research undertaken in: Netherlands.
Keywords: citizenship; education/training; economic participation; host country/region: Netherlands; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; migrants, including refugees.
H3 Bloch, A. (2002). Refugees' opportunities and barriers in employment and training. Research Report No. 179. London: Department for Work and Pensions.
Research focus/aims: The aim of the research was to determine whether the training and employment support for forced migrants who are eligible to work are sufficient and appropriate.
Participants: Refugees, 39 percent of whom had been in Britain for five years or more.
Key findings/outcomes: Nearly all refugees had made new friends since living in Britain - 59 percent had made friends mainly with members of their own community; 35 percent had made friends with people from refugee communities, other ethnic minority groups and 'white' British people. Just under a third had moved to a different area since living in Britain. A third lived where they did because of family, 16 percent because of friends and 10 percent because of the existence of a community.
Nearly two-thirds had attended an English language course, but two-thirds of those who spoke no English and 28 percent of those who spoke English slightly on arrival in Britain had not attended a language course. Thirty-one percent did not complete their course because of childcare and family commitments.
Participation in training was low, although refugees were interested in training. They were inhibited by not having language skills, not knowing what was available or what they were entitled to, lack of childcare, and family commitments.
Refugees were much less likely to be employed than other ethnic minority people. Those who were working were employed in a few industries or types of jobs: catering, interpreting and translation, shop work and in administration and clerical jobs. Terms and conditions of employment were poor and notably worse than those experienced by ethnic minority people.
Refugees were more likely to be in temporary posts and to receive less pay. More found their jobs through friends than through other sources. They identified lack of English language schools and UK work experience as the main barriers to employment.
Recommendations: The report includes a number of recommendations for Jobcentre Plus staff, in relation to English language, education and training and for service providers.
Scope: The study is based on focus groups with organisations, an analysis of datasets, a survey of 400 refugees and asylum seekers and interviews with 80 refugees in six cities.
Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion; role of host country; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; women; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; research methods: survey; migrants, including refugees.
H4 Bloch, A. (2004). 'Labour market participation and conditions of employment: a comparison of minority ethnic groups and refugees in Britain'. Sociological Research Online, 9(2). Retrieved on 22 December 2008 from www.socresonline.org.uk/9/2/bloch.html.
Research focus/aims: To present an up-to-date comparison of the labour market experiences of minority ethnic groups and refugees.
Participants: Data from the UK Labour Force Survey (LFS) and a survey of 400 refugees in Britain from five ethnic groups - Somalia, Turkey, Iraq, Sri Lanka and Kosavar - and five regions. 10 percent had refugee status, 17 percent were naturalised UK citizens, 21 percent had exceptional leave to remain, 22 were asylum seekers on temporary admission (who no longer had a right to work), 29 percent had indefinite leave to remain and 1 percent were a citizen of an EU country (i.e. 57 percent had security of status).
Key findings/outcomes: Refugees experienced lower rates of employment than their ethnic minority counterparts, and those refugees in employment were more likely to be in temporary and part-time work with poorer terms and conditions of employment and wages. In addition, male refugees had higher employment rates than female refugees. Reasons for this disadvantage included structural barriers such as dispersal policies, leaving refugees isolated from social and community networks that provide information and advice and information routes into employment, and in areas of higher unemployment. Also mentioned are circumstances of exile, attitudes to country of origin and insecurity of having temporary status as factors preventing economic activity.
Topics in the questionnaire included qualifications, language and literacy skills, training, employment histories and job seeking strategies in UK and prior to coming to UK, participation in English language classes, voluntary sector activity, social and community involvement among refugees in UK and demographic characteristics. Some questions from the LFS were included.
The research also included analysis of rates of self-employment by ethnic group, occupations and industry, earnings, and terms and conditions of employment.
It looked at differences by length of residence (less than one year, between one and three years, between three and five years, between five and ten years, and more than ten years) by age and by region.
Recommendations: None stated but implied that dispersal policies do not help with economic participation.
Scope: Combination of quantitative analysis from LFS and survey research of 400 refugees.
Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.
Keywords: citizenship; social capital/networks; dispersal policies; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; migrants, including refugees.
H5 Blom, S. (1997). 'Tracing the integration of refugees in the labour market'. Statistical Journal of the UN Economic Commission for Europe, 14(3), 243-268.
Research focus/aims: The research traces the integration of refugees into the labour market in Norway.
Participants: Refugees who settled in Norway between 1987 and 1992.
Key findings/outcomes: The proportion of employed increased according to length of stay and dropped according to how late during the period from 1987 to 1992 the refugees settled. This may be attributable to the fact that earlier cohorts had easier access to the labour market.
The employment rate was higher for refugees from Eastern Europe and South and Central America than for refugees from Asia and Africa. Refugees from Sri Lanka had the most success in becoming economically self-sufficient. Vietnamese refugees appeared to be the least successful.
Settlement cohort was more important than length of stay for the chance of being employed, emphasising the importance of the macroeconomic situation in relation to the refugees' chances on the labour market. Economic recovery benefited new refugee cohorts as well as those who settled during economic recession.
Recommendations: The paper includes no specific recommendations.
Scope: The research follows six refugee settlement cohorts with regard to their employment, educational activity and registered unemployment over a period from 1987 to 1993. It uses multivariate analysis to analyse data for periods of one to six years residence.
Country research undertaken in: Norway.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion; education/training; economic participation; host country/region: Norway; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; refugees.
H6 Brahmbhatt, K., Atfield, G., Irving, H., Lee, J. and O'Toole, T. (2007). Refugees' experiences of integration: policy related findings on employment, ESOL and vocational training. Birmingham: University of Birmingham and Refugee Council.
Research focus/aims: The paper explores access and barriers to employment, ESOL and vocational training in a small sample of refugees.
Participants: 90 refugees and asylum seekers in two areas in Birmingham, plus a literature review.
Key findings/outcomes: The literature review identified informal networks as the most common method of job seeking and gaining employment advice. Key barriers to employment were language skills, recognition of overseas qualifications, little relevant UK work experience, lack of references, problems with cultural misunderstandings in the workplace and difficulties with housing and family circumstances. Other barriers include anxiety, lack of confidence and a lack of geographical and/or systemic knowledge.
The interviews found that the many barriers to accessing employment and training were a result of both external structural and situational factors as well as individual level barriers. Those who were not able to participate in employment, ESOL and vocational training found that integration goals were difficult, and in some cases impossible, to achieve.
Recommendations: The report includes ten recommendations relating to the right to work, funding for services and greater awareness of the needs of refugees.
Scope: A qualitative study that draws on a brief literature review, a review of current policy and interviews with 90 refugees and asylum seekers.
Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.
Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; education/training; economic participation; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; research methods: review; refugees.
H7 Burnley, I. (1998). 'Immigrant city, global city? Advantage and disadvantage among communities from Asia in Sydney'. Australian Geographer, 29(1), 49-69.
Research focus/aims: The paper examines the socioeconomic profiles of major immigrant groups from Asia in Sydney at the 1991 Census and reviews trends of concentration and mobility.
Participants: Multiethnic - Census data.
Key findings/outcomes: The authors conclude that, while there are strong residential concentrations on the part of established immigrants and recent settlers in Sydney, very few groups can be regarded as segregated. Very high unemployment has taken place in areas of concentration of Vietnamese, Laotian, Khmer and Arabic-speaking persons in Sydney. In part, this is because of language difficulties and recency of arrival, but it is also through job losses in the manufacturing sector. While disadvantage is associated with residential concentrations of refugee origin from Southeast Asia, and with Arabic-speaking groups from the Middle East, the residential concentrations do not necessarily cause disadvantage. Movements of Vietnamese-born, Cambodian-born and Laotian-born into concentrated areas from elsewhere in Australia have taken place, possibly to obtain communal support in a situation of economic adversity.
Recommendations: The report makes no specific recommendations.
Scope: Analysis of Census data. The paper does not specifically focus on refugees but does refer to them in discussion.
Country research undertaken in: Australia.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion; economic participation; language acquisition/ESOL; host country/region: Australia; source country/region: Asia; research methods: survey; migrants, including refugees.
H8 Charlaff, L., Ibrani, K., Lowe, M., Marsden, R. and Turney, L. (2004). Refugees and asylum seekers in Scotland: a skills and aspirations audit. Edinburgh: Scottish Executive and Scottish Refugee Council.
Research focus/aims: The project aimed to audit the skills and aspirations of refugees and asylum seekers living in Scotland.
Participants: 523 refugees and asylum seekers in Scotland.
Key findings/outcomes: Most refugees and asylum seekers were well qualified and possessed a broad range of technical and professional skills. Sixteen percent could speak English 'fluently' while another third could speak it 'fairly well'. Most respondents wanted to improve their English, and two-thirds would like to access further training.
Respondents identified access to employment as pivotal to the process of settlement and integration. Over a third would like to find any kind of work, while 58 percent would like to find work that matched their skills and experience.
Key barriers to employment were lack of proficiency in English language and in accessing training, proving qualifications and accessing appropriate conversion courses.
Despite their skills and experience, a very small proportion of refugees and asylum seekers had been able to access paid employment in Scotland.
Recommendations: No specific recommendations are included.
Scope: The research was based on a semi-structured questionnaire completed by 523 refugees and asylum seekers.
Country research undertaken in: Scotland.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion; economic participation; language acquisition/ESOL; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; refugees, including asylum seekers.
H9 Chile, L. and Brown, P. (1999). Retraining and professional employment of recent migrants and refugees in New Zealand: the myth and the reality. Paper presented at the Educators and Planners: Symphony or Discord: AAIR Conference, 3 December 1999.
Research focus/aims: The paper challenges the assumption that there are appropriate avenues for retraining for professional migrants in New Zealand.
Participants: Professionally qualified migrants and refugees on a Work and Income-funded English language course.
Key findings/outcomes: The research found that only a small proportion of those who graduated from the English language programmes went on to get jobs in their professional area. Non-professional migrants and refugees were much more likely to obtain employment after completing the course. The authors conclude that policy responses to retraining professional immigrants into professional employment have failed. They identify a lack of fit between the content of the retraining programmes and requirements of the professional employment market.
Recommendations: The authors recommend greater collaboration between the professional bodies, the training institutions and the New Zealand Qualifications Authority.
Scope: The paper draws on a longitudinal study using questionnaires, interviews and ethnographic qualitative data from migrants and refugees. It focused on migrants and refugees taking the certificate course in Employment Skills English in the School of Languages, Unitec New Zealand. The material was gathered two years into a ten-year study.
Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.
Keywords: role of host country; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; research methods: ethnographic; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.
H10 Chile, L. (2002). 'The imported underclass: poverty and social exclusion of black African refugees in Aotearoa New Zealand'. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 43(3), 355-366.
Research focus/aims: To identify issues leading to social exclusion for black African refugees
Participants: Black African refugees in New Zealand.
Key findings/outcomes: The paper discusses the concept of social exclusion and factors relevant to black African refugees. Chile argues that the capacity to participate in the democratic process is very severely limited by a lack of literacy skills. Many refugees arrive with a heavy debt burden, which impacts on their ability to save, access to appropriate housing and accommodation, and participation in social and cultural activities. Many experience discrimination and prejudice, including in work. Lack of community capacity often leaves them dependent on relief.
Recommendations: The author recommends a community development approach that is built on local expertise, local needs and principles of equity to build community capacity. Direct funding of employment and income generating activities may be beneficial.
Scope: This is largely a discussion paper but does draw on data from field surveys conducted between April and November 1999. Findings on sources of debt are presented for 46 respondents, while findings on economic status are presented for 68 respondents.
Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.
Keywords: social capital/networks; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; social exclusion; civic/political participation; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: Africa; research methods: discussion paper; research methods: survey; refugees.
H11 Colic-Peisker, V. (2005). '"At least you're the right colour": identity and social inclusion of Bosnian refugees in Australia'. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31(4), 615-638.
Research focus/aims: This article explores whether the apparent 'entry advantage' of Bosnians extends into their resettlement, on the basis of their 'whiteness' and 'invisibility' in a country still perceived as 'white'.
Participants: Bosnian refugees who had been in Australia at least two years.
Key findings/outcomes: In spite of the early claim for inclusion through 'being European', the social interaction of most Bosnians with the English-speaking community was limited, as was their economic and social inclusion in mainstream Australia. A majority of skilled and highly skilled Bosnians experienced 'down adjustment' in Australia, and most stayed within their 'ethnic' precinct. The successful transition from the early stage of 'self-inclusion' to the second stage, when real social inclusion on the basis of satisfactory employment and social interaction beyond the ethnic community should be achieved, seems crucial. The language barrier made many Bosnians aware of their 'otherness'. None found a job through government employment assistance.
Recommendations: The report emphasises the importance of satisfactory economic integration for the overall successful inclusion of migrants and refugees. With Bosnians, factors such as inadequate English, unrecognised formal qualifications, inexperience on the local job market and inadequate employment assistance need to be tackled in the early government resettlement programme and beyond.
Scope: Research in two Australian cities, based on 54 interviews with refugees, community leaders, resettlement workers and service providers.
Country research undertaken in: Australia.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion; role of host country; economic participation; host country/region: Australia; source country/region: Bosnia; research methods: interviews; refugees.
H12 Colic-Peisker, V. and Walker, I. (2003). 'Human capital, acculturation and social identity: Bosnian refugees in Australia'. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 13, 337-360.
Research focus/aims: The paper explores influences on and processes towards acculturation among refugees.
Participants: Bosnian families who resettled in Australia during the 1990s.
Key findings/outcomes: The paper focuses particularly on middle class refugees who experience tension between the undesirable administrative identity of a refugee and the social identity they aspire to. Employment is, in many cases, an efficient way to acculturate and reconstruct one's identity. Middle class people who did not succeed in finding adequate employment, but were reluctant to accept a low-status job, seemed to live in relative social isolation, unable to integrate into mainstream society. They were also reluctant to get involved with the 'ethnic community'. In many cases, their formal qualifications were not recognised so they had to either accept occupational downgrading or had to study or undergo demanding examinations in order to be able to seek their previous job. University-educated Bosnians who acquired a professional job gained membership in socially more positively valued groups than the groups of refugees to which they were originally confined. The authors also describe separation and marginalisation of other groups within the Bosnian community, particularly working class people and those from rural areas. They note that the second generation appears to be integrating quickly.
Recommendations: The paper makes no specific recommendations.
Scope: A qualitative study based on interviews with 35 refugees and 25 refugee professionals. The refugees had all been in Australia at least two years; some had lived in Australia for ten years.
Country research undertaken in: Australia.
Keywords: economic participation; ethnic/cultural identity; social exclusion; second generation; host country/region: Australia; source country/region: Bosnia; research methods: interviews; refugees.
H13 Cortes, K. (2004). Are refugees different from economic immigrants? Some empirical evidence on the heterogeneity of immigrant groups in the United States. Discussion Paper No. 1063. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor.
Research focus/aims: The paper explores how the implicit difference in time horizons between refugees and economic immigrants affects their subsequent investment in human capital and wage assimilation.
Participants: Immigrants, including refugees of various ethnicities, who arrived in the United States from 1975 to 1980.
Key findings/outcomes: The author found that refugee immigrants had lower average earnings upon arrival. However, their annual earnings grew faster over time than those of economic immigrants. In 1990, refugees earned 20 percent more and worked 4 percent more hours than economic immigrants.
On arrival, both immigrant groups had about the same level of English skills. Over time, refugees tended to have higher human capital investment than economic immigrants, i.e. they improved their English skills 11 percent more than economic immigrants.
The author concludes that English improvement accounted for a 7 percent and 5 percent gain in earnings for refugee males and females respectively, whereas, for economic immigrant males and females, English improvement accounted for a 6 percent and 4 percent gain in earnings respectively.
The differences between refugee and economic immigrants were not attributable to any single country of origin or ethnic group.
Recommendations: The paper includes no specific recommendations.
Scope: The author uses data from the 1980 and 1990 US Census Public Use Micro Samples to construct a synthetic cohort to compare the accumulation of human capital investments and earnings growth over a decade for refugees and economic migrants.
Country research undertaken in: United States.
Keywords: economic participation; language acquisition/ESOL; integration/social cohesion; host country/region: United States; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; migrants, including refugees.
H14 DeVoretz, D., Pivnenko, S. and Beiser, M. (2004). The economic experiences of refugees in Canada. Discussion Paper No. 1088. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor.
Research focus/aims: This paper explores the economic experiences of refugees in Canada post 1981, including the length of time required for refugee economic integration.
Participants: Refugees and family migrants to Canada from 1980 to 2001
Key findings/outcomes: The analysis compared refugee earnings relative to independent and family class immigrant earnings over time. Approximately 52 percent of refugees aged 20-64 found employment. Employed refugees earned an equal amount of income both at the time of arrival and in each successive year of residence as family class immigrants. Privately sponsored refugee earnings exceeded other refugee group earnings over the study period. While employed refugees did comparatively well, refugees on social assistance still had an extremely low income after seven years' residence.
Economic outcome appeared to depend not only on human capital but on opportunity. Regional differences in refugee economic integration suggested that local job market conditions affected refugees' chances of successful integration, regardless of human capital characteristics.
Recommendations: More needs to be done to increase the employment rate among refugees. Factors such as lack of recognition of credentials, discrimination and job programmes need to be investigated.
Scope: Two administrative databases provided the information for this research. The first provided information on arrival for 4.1 million people between 1980 and 2001. The second covered approximately 2 million immigrants who file tax returns. The databases give information on education, language ability and income since arrival and allowed the researchers to develop some 'stylised facts'.
Country research undertaken in: Canada.
Keywords: economic participation; social exclusion; integration/social cohesion; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey.
H15 Ghorashi, H. and van Tilburg, M. (2006). '"When is my Dutch good enough?" Experiences of refugee women with Dutch labour organisations'. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 7(1), 51-70.
Research focus/aims: The article aims to show how female refugees who have completed higher education in the Netherlands experience the process of integration into the Dutch labour market through contacts with and in Dutch organisations.
Participants: Female refugees from Iran and Afghanistan.
Key findings/outcomes: Most of the women had completed higher education in their homelands and came to the Netherlands between 1984 and 1997. They went through a long asylum procedure, during which they could not attend school or work. Most had to repeat their studies in the Netherlands because their qualifications were not recognised. Some chose a new field at university level; others chose job-oriented education in order to have better chances for work. Despite difficulties in gaining admission, lack of recognition of past experience or education, financial barriers, family responsibilities and the demands of voluntary work, none of the women experienced delays in their studies. In looking for work once qualified, they experienced discrimination, particularly on the basis of language (their accented Dutch). Of those who approached the University Assistance Fund Job Support Service for advice, 85 percent found suitable jobs within a year. Those who did find jobs became 'token' employees. Because of their visibility, they were not permitted to make mistakes and often had to work harder than other employees to prove themselves.
The authors conclude that the 'so-called imperfection' in language is a manifestation of the fear of cultural difference. The language skills of new migrants can never meet the expectations of Dutch organisations. They argue that any instrumental attempts to solve integration problems based on the assumption that language proficiency and education are enough to achieve integration will fail.
Recommendations: More effort needs to be made to consider the dominant culturalist and assimilative discourses on integration.
Scope: This qualitative study gathered data through in-depth interviews, questionnaires and participant observation.
Country research undertaken in: Netherlands.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; ethnic/cultural identity; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; host country/region: Netherlands; source country/region: Iran; source country/region: Afghanistan; research methods: interviews; research methods: ethnographic; refugees.
H16 Guerin, P. and Guerin, B. (2002). Relocating refugees in developing countries: the poverty experiences of Somali resettling in New Zealand. Paper presented at the 5th International APMRN Conference, Fiji.
Research focus/aims: This paper aims to describe the nature of problems that may be experienced by refugees when resettling in a developed country and uses the authors' experience with the Somali refugees in New Zealand.
Participants: Somali refugees in New Zealand.
Key findings/outcomes: The authors first discuss aspects of poverty in Somalia, and suggest that those arriving in New Zealand already have a long history of poverty conditions. They then outline a range of issues affecting the social mobility of Somali refugees in New Zealand. These include differences in culture, religion, race and language. Gender constraints on socialising and religious implications concerning food and clothing inhibit socialising and employment with Westerners. In addition, a family's economic prospects may be reduced, as the majority of refugees are women and children. Family roles are disrupted because women need to work, meaning that children become responsible for childcare and cooking. The authors suggest that the experience of extreme poverty in Africa affects how refugees adapt to life in the host country. The authors provide examples of how living in poverty has affected behaviours in the host country, particularly those related to parenting styles (for example, young children being left on their own, or in the care of sick children), mental and social health (where it is often assumed that a mental health problem is related to trauma, but may be due to missing and absent family), economic expectations (where it is difficult to meet the remittance and family reunification expectations of those still in the home country or in camps), food (for example, in sugar consumption) and lifestyle (for example, not having the financial resources to pay for school uniforms or participate in sports activities). The authors suggest that these factors may lead to some refugees feeling very poor and dissatisfied with their new country after a few years.
Recommendations: The authors refer to the need to improve the employment and education (including children's education) prospects of refugees along with their ability to deal with everyday life in situations of poverty and suggests that this might occur through studying the ways in which other poor and disadvantaged groups live in and move out of a poverty cycle.
Scope: A discussion paper drawing on the authors' experience with the Somali refugee community in Auckland, New Zealand, and a review of the literature on resettlement of refugees in developed countries.
Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.
Keywords: Ethnic/cultural identity; economic participation; health/wellbeing; education/training; women; children/youth; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: Somalia; research methods: discussion paper; research methods: review; refugees.
H17 Hansen, J. and Lofstrom, M. (1999). Immigrant assimilation and welfare participation: do immigrants assimilate into or out of welfare? IZA Discussion Paper No. 100. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor.
Research focus/aims: The paper analyses differences in welfare use between immigrants and native Swedish people for the years 1990 to 1996.
Participants: Refugees, immigrants and natives of Sweden.
Key findings/outcomes: Immigrants used welfare to a greater extent than natives, and non-refugee immigrants used welfare less than refugee immigrants. Immigrants lowered their reliance on welfare with time spent in Sweden. Refugees had substantially higher welfare participation rates when they arrived in Sweden compared to non-refugee immigrants, but they moved off welfare at a faster rate than non-refugee immigrants. The authors estimate that, even after 20 years, differences will still remain between Swedish natives and immigrants in rates of welfare use. They suggest that this may be due to increases in the number of immigrants and changing labour markets but that further research is needed to establish if this is so.
Recommendations: The authors argue that welfare costs on arrival should not be used to make long-term predictions of welfare costs caused by immigration.
Scope: This is a quantitative study drawn from a large panel dataset covering more than 300,000 people.
Country research undertaken in: Sweden.
Keywords: economic participation; host country/region: Sweden; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; migrants, including refugees.
H18 Lamba, N. (2003). 'The employment experiences of Canadian refugees: measuring the impact of human social capital on quality of employment'. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 40(1), 45-64.
Research focus/aims: The research investigates the impact of human and social capital on refugees' quality of employment.
Participants: 525 adult refugees from a range of source countries, who had been living in Canada between one and six years.
Key findings/outcomes: A large majority (82 percent) of adult refugees held a paying job in Canada at some point after arrival but the quality of employment was low. Steady employment was not common, with a high proportion in temporary or part-time jobs. Former occupation or educational status accounted for virtually none of the variation in quality of employment. Nor did English-language training or additional training obtained in Canada. Gaining recognition for foreign credentials was a major barrier for refugees in their attempt to secure employment comparable to their former careers. Experiences of discrimination also interfered with positive employment outcomes, particularly for visible minority refugees. A refugee's network structure showed the greatest impact on quality of employment, with the largest positive impact coming from living with a spouse/partner. Without a working spouse in the household, refugees may not have the flexibility to look for high-quality employment. Refugees who used friends and family to find a job were more likely to have a greater quality of employment. Residential stability may increase opportunities to broaden the range of network ties instrumental in employment adjustment and advancement.
Recommendations: Service providers can supply network ties with appropriate and useful knowledge about the Canadian labour market and its structural restrictions, as well as opportunities to build an extensive range of ethnic group-based resources ranging from help in caring for dependents to opportunities for career advancement.
Scope: A large-scale interview survey of 525 refugees, with the results subject to regression analysis.
Country research undertaken in: Canada.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion; social capital/networks; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; refugees.
H19 Lamba, N. (2002). 'The impact of capital on resettlement outcomes among adult refugees in Canada'. Abstract only. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 63(5), 2012-A.
Research focus/aims: The thesis focuses on the value of a refugee's network structure and human capital in shaping resettlement outcomes.
Participants: 525 adult refugees who arrived in Canada in the 1990s.
Key findings/outcomes: Results show that in-group ties, specifically close family and co-ethnic friends, have a positive impact on employment outcomes, income levels and purchasing power towards buying a home. However, constrained by a combination of structural barriers, a significant proportion of refugees find that their human capital has virtually no power in the Canadian labour market and, moreover, that the networks refugees are presently employing are unable to restore their former occupational status. Network ties also play a significant role with respect to self-identification as a Canadian. However, rather than in-group ties, ties outside the inner circle enhance refugees' sense of Canadian identity and belonging, suggesting that Canadian identity is defined, in part, as aligning oneself with an ideal sense of an 'average' Canadian.
Recommendations: Several policy and programme recommendations are suggested to facilitate and improve refugees' use of network ties in their resettlement. (These are not included in the abstract.)
Scope: The paper provides a detailed description of refugees' surviving and emerging familial and extra-familial network structures in Canada. Employing a multistep multiple regression analysis, it investigates the impacts of networks and other forms of potential capital (human and economic capital) on four resettlement outcomes: quality of employment, annual household income, home ownership and self-identification as a Canadian.
Country research undertaken in: Canada.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; social capital/networks; citizenship; ethnic/cultural identity; economic participation; housing; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; refugees; research methods: survey.
H20 Mamgain, V. and Collins, K. (2003). 'Off the boat, now off to work: refugees in the labour market in Portland, Maine'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 16(2), 113-142.
Research focus/aims: The paper explores how refugees reconstruct their work lives.
Participants: Refugees who arrived in Portland between 1993 and 2000.
Key findings/outcomes: English language skills are a very important determinant of success in the US labour market. Many refugees reported working two or more jobs to save money or help their extended family back home. Refugees often reported finding their first job through family and tribal networks. Connections to a wider community were also useful. The authors comment: "Ultimately, success depends not on how many people one knows. Rather, what matters is how many people of the dominant racial group one knows socially."
Recommendations: No specific recommendations are included.
Scope: The study uses locally generated data about refugees settled in the greater Portland area to examine their first forays in the local labour market. The study incorporates a brief literature review, qualitative research and an econometrically estimated human capital model.
Country research undertaken in: United States.
Keywords: transnationalism/diaspora; social capital/networks; economic participation; host country/region: United States; source country/region: mixed ethnicities.
H21 Potocky-Tripodi, M. (2001). 'Micro and macro determinants of refugee economic status'. Journal of Social Service Research, 27(4), 33-59.
Research focus/aims: This study investigated the relative influences of micro and macro factors on refugee economic status and sought to identify the most important determinants of refugee economic status.
Participants: A nationally representative sample of Soviet/East European, Southeast Asian and Cuban refugees who had come to the United States after 1948 (Soviets and Soviet bloc countries), from 1959 (Cubans) or after 1975 (Southeast Asians). The sample was restricted to working-age people.
Key findings/outcomes: Statistical analysis showed that demographic characteristics were by far the most influential in determining economic status. Residency, acculturation and community characteristics all had a relatively small effect on refugees' economic status. The determinants most strongly associated with economic status were education, disability, gender and household composition. These determinants are the same as for the population as a whole and the same across all three groups of refugees. The author argues that, while English proficiency is a desirable outcome in itself and obviously a prerequisite to obtaining higher education, it is clearly not sufficient for enhancing refugee economic status.
Recommendations: Interventions beyond English language training are needed. Because refugees' economic status does not improve simply as a function of time, active intervention is needed to improve refugees' economic situation.
Scope: This was a large sample drawing on Census and metropolitan data. It used statistical regression analysis to identify relevant factors.
Country research undertaken in: United States.
Keywords: role of host country; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; housing; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Southeast Asia; source country/region: Cuba; source country/region: Soviet bloc; research methods: survey; refugees.
H22 Potocky-Tripodi, M. (2003). 'Refugee economic adaptation: theory, evidence, and implications for policy and practice'. Journal of Social Service Research, 30(1), 63-91.
Research focus/aims: The study assessed the relative effects of flight-related characteristics, perceived attitudes of host society members, adaptation stress and acculturation on refugee economic adaptation.
Participants: Hmong, Somali and Russian refugees.
Key findings/outcomes: The analysis showed that the four factors - flight-related characteristics, perceived attitudes of host society members, adaptation stress and acculturation - added little explanation to the variance in refugees' economic adaptation. The most important predictors were demographic characteristics, in particular, education, gender and household composition (marital status and presence of children in the household). The Russian refugees were an exception in one regard - the most important predictor of employment status for them was their English-speaking ability. A confounding factor was that 60 percent of the Russians were college graduates, compared to only 7 percent of Hmong and 23 percent of the Somalis.
Recommendations: The author recommends that refugee resettlement policies, programmes and practices that aim to enhance economic adaptation should target those demographic characteristics that have the greatest influence on economic adaptation. Education is the one variable that is most amenable to intervention.
Scope: The study was a secondary analysis of data from a large survey of Hmong, Somali and Russian refugees in a city in the United States. Most had been resident in the United States for at least ten years.
Country research undertaken in: United States.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion; economic participation; education/training; children/youth; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Southeast Asian; source country/region: Somalia; source country/region: Russia; research methods: survey; refugees.
H23 Potocky-Tripodi, M. (2004). 'The role of social capital in immigrant and refugee economic adaptation'. Journal of Social Service Research, 31(1), 59-91.
Research focus/aims: This study examined the effects of social capital on the economic adaptation of Latin American and Asian refugees in the United States.
Participants: First generation Latin American and Asian refugees in Florida and San Diego.
Key findings/outcomes: Social capital theory suggests that social capital is an important factor in immigration and refugee economic adaptation. This study found that social capital explained very little of the variance in employment status, use of public assistance or earnings, after controlling for background variables. Given that, there was some relationship between the number of friends living in the same city/county as the respondent and whether the respondent socialised mostly with compatriots. Each additional friend in the social network slightly increased the odds of being employed. Those who socialised mostly with their compatriots were less likely to be employed than those who had wider networks. Overall, the study casts doubt on the importance of social capital as a determinant of immigrant and refugee economic outcomes. The study did find that US citizenship, English ability, education and gender were strongly associated with economic outcomes.
Recommendations: The author recommends that resources should be targeted to education, English ability and citizenship.
Scope: A large multivariate, cross-sectional survey (2,336 respondents).
Country research undertaken in: United States.
Keywords: citizenship; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; social capital/networks; economic participation; gender; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Latin America; source country/region: Asia; research methods: survey; refugees.
H24 Shields, J., Rahi, K. and Scholtz, A. (2006). Voices from the margins: visible-minority immigrant and refugee youth experiences with employment exclusion in Toronto. CERIS Working Paper No. 47. Toronto: Joint Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigration and Settlement.
Research focus/aims: The research examines the 'lived labour market' experience of immigrant and refugee young people who have been unsuccessful in their attempts to integrate into the Toronto labour market.
Participants: Visibly identifiable African and Asian youth aged 18-29. Some were refugees, others were immigrants.
Key findings/outcomes: The experiences of refugees and immigrants reflected more commonalities than differences in their search for employment. Many had considerable educational skills and meaningful work experience.
As with other studies, lack of Canadian work experience, lack of recognition of qualifications and English language proficiency were the main barriers. Others were blockages caused by refugee and immigration processes, resource deficiencies in settlement services, lack of co-ordination between settlement and employment services, serious information deficits and the questionable nature of volunteering as a way to gain experience and to provide a network to help gain employment. Racism and discrimination were also major barriers. Lack of success in the labour market produced frustration and anxiety that often resulted in social and psychological difficulties and a general pattern of social exclusion.
Recommendations: No specific recommendations are included.
Scope: This is a qualitative study drawing on eight focus groups with young people from a wide range of ethnic groups.
Country research undertaken in: Canada.
Keywords: role of host country; education/training; social exclusion; health/wellbeing; children/youth; economic participation; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Africa; source country/region: Asia; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.
H25 Somerville, W. and Wintour, P. (2006). 'Integration of new migrants: employment'. In S. Spencer (Ed.), Refugees and other new migrants: a review of the evidence on successful approaches to integration (pp. 37-56.). Oxford: Centre on Migration, Policy and Society (COMPAS).
Research focus/aims: Employment issues relating to integration of new migrants.
Participants: Migrants and refugees who have been in the UK less than five years.
Key findings/outcomes: The authors note that refugees are rarely differentiated from other migrants in statistics. They found that the employment rate for the foreign-born population was worse than for the UK-born population. Female migrants were more likely to be economically inactive or unemployed than males. Studies suggest that unemployment rates for refugees vary from 75-90 percent depending on geographical area and mobility. A recent study found a refugee unemployment rate of 36 percent, six times higher than the national average. Migrant performance in the labour market was affected by education, the country where qualifications were obtained, English language fluency and the number of years since arrival in the UK. Discrimination was also a factor, as was lack of documentation. The voluntary sector has a weak record in supporting employment as a result of low, precarious and inconsistent funding. Positive policy interventions include protective employment legislation, language tuition, skills training, work with refugee health professionals, and partnerships between agencies to access jobs and work experience.
The paper refers to measures of employment including rates of employment, unemployment and inactivity, and levels of income. Other measures could be levels of under-employment, self-employment, unionisation, training, levels of job satisfaction, days off for sickness and proportion of migrants in senior positions.
Recommendations: Along with others in this review, the study recommends joined-up practice in the delivery of services at the point of need.
Scope: Review of literature relating to employment and new migrants in the UK.
Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; health/wellbeing; economic participation; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: review; migrants, including refugees.
H26 Ugbe, U. (2007). 'The new Americans: factors affecting economic integration among African refugees in New Hampshire'. Abstract only. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 67(11), 4354.
Research focus/aims: The research focuses on labour market activities, as well as current and potential micro-entrepreneurial activities among the African refugees in New Hampshire.
Participants: African refugees in New Hampshire.
Key findings/outcomes: Findings include varying degrees of statistical association between human capital and situational indicators (such as gender, age, education, country of origin, and length of stay in the USA) and the participants' wage income; a downward occupational mobility for refugees with educational or professional qualifications; systemic barriers to the transfer, recognition, retraining, credentialling and licensing of occupational skills that the refugees bring from their countries of origin; illiteracy and lack of English language proficiency; cultural disconnectedness and lack of familiarity with the American workplace etiquette; and creative uses of the welfare state by refugees as coping strategies in combination with wage income or informal micro-entrepreneurial activities. Due to the combined effects of these factors, 24 percent of the study participants were unemployed, while those employed were concentrated in unskilled, entry-level jobs in the manufacturing sector, which placed them among the so-called working poor in America.
Recommendations: The study recommends policies, programmes and self-help interventions for promoting economic integration among the refugees.
Scope: The New Hampshire state government and Lutheran Social Services supplied the secondary data for the study, complemented by primary data from a researcher-administered survey of 110 cases, phenomenological interviews with 44 African refugees and triangulation of these with six community-based resource persons who work with African refugees.
Country research undertaken in: United States.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; education/training; economic participation; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Africa; research methods: survey; research methods: interviews; refugees.
H27 Valtonen, K. (2001). 'Social work with immigrants and refugees: developing a participation-based framework for anti-oppressive practice'. British Journal of Social Work, 31, 955-960.
Research focus/aims: Relates research findings in the area of employment to the skills and abilities social workers need to contribute in this area.
Participants: Vietnamese, Somali and Middle Eastern refugees who had been in Finland approximately five years.
Key findings/outcomes: High unemployment indicates that resettling groups are in a very marginal position in the labour market. Most refugees had been active job seekers using a broad range of job seeking channels. Young job seekers experienced attitudinal and institutional resistance along the boundaries of the job market. The more highly skilled and educated had not been able to use their education or experience in Finland.
Recommendations: Social workers need to establish links with institutions such as the labour market and its agencies so that they can support their clients.
Scope: Based on interviews with 240 refugees in the context of an advanced welfare state.
Country research undertaken in: Finland.
Keywords: social exclusion; education/training; role of host country; economic participation; host country/region: Finland; source country/region: Vietnam; source country/region: Somalia; source country/region: Middle East; research methods: interviews; refugees.
H28 Valtonen, K. (2004). 'From the margin to the mainstream: conceptualizing refugee settlement processes'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 17(1), 70-96.
Research focus/aims: The article explores settlement processes and the difficulties experienced by refugee individuals and communities in Finland.
Participants: Vietnamese, Iraqi, Kurdish and Cambodian refugees who arrived as quota refugees, plus a group of Somali refugees who arrived as asylum seekers.
Key findings/outcomes: Integration is defined as the ability to participate fully in economic, social, cultural and political activities, without having to relinquish one's own distinct ethnocultural identity and culture.
Across the target groups, there was a strong similarity in settlement goals, which were employment, a place to study, retention of own culture, family reunification, knowing what the settling person's rights and duties were in the society and reduction of negative stereotyping of refugees.
Unemployment was around 70 percent for all groups for both case studies and remained consistently higher than in both the general population and the foreigner category. Job applicants were often rejected on the grounds of presumed lack of language skills. Very few had received vocational training or been admitted to universities. For women, the provision of a living allowance and the universal childcare arrangements of the Finnish state facilitated labour market participation. Data on chain employment pointed to the emergence of valuable social capital networks that extend to the majority population. The provision of references from Finnish friends to potential employers is an example of interlinkages and their crucial function on effecting access to mainstream areas at an individual level.
Between the two periods of study, ethnic communities became numerically stronger and more established. They established networks that spread vital information, assistance and support. Risk of social isolation was reduced by the level of secondary migration towards urban centres with greater concentrations of countrymen and women.
Recommendations: The recurring phenomena of resistance and discrimination need to be addressed through state intervention. Resources need to be directed to achieving change in the receiving society, to complement the individual adjustment efforts of refugees.
Scope: The study is based on data from two qualitative collective case studies on refugee settlement in Finland - one undertaken in 1993-94 and the other in 1997-98.
Country research undertaken in: Finland.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; ethnic/cultural identity; civic/political participation; role of host country; social capital/networks; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; women; host country/region: Finland; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: case studies; refugees, including asylum seekers.
H29 Zimmermann, K., Kahanec, M., Constant, A., DeVoretz, D., Gataullina, L. and Zaiceva, A. (2008). Study on the social and labour market integration of ethnic minorities. IZA Research Report No. 16. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor.
Research focus/aims: The research analyses barriers to the labour market integration of ethnic minorities in the European Union.
Participants: Country experts.
Key findings/outcomes: The authors note the insufficiency and inconsistency of the available European data. Nevertheless, they find ethnic minorities tend to have higher unemployment rates, lower occupational attainment and wages, and often a smaller labour market attachment when measured by participation rates. Furthermore, the economic status of minorities does not necessarily adapt across generations.
A study of European social surveys found that the largest proportion of the host society with more hostile attitudes were those who were permanently sick or disabled, discouraged workers, the unemployed and retirees, whereas young people and the higher educated were more open about ethnic minorities. Roma and Africans were most frequently cited as those facing the largest risk of exclusion.
They found that most integration initiatives were implemented by non-governmental and public organisations, with very few by the business sector.
Scope: This report presents findings from several sources including ten case studies developed by country experts, attitudinal data and findings from an expert opinion survey.
Country research undertaken in: European Union.
Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; social exclusion; economic participation; second generation; host country/region: European Union; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; migrants, including refugees; research methods: case studies.