K. Integration and refugee characteristics

Gender

K1 Beg, N. (2005). A qualitative study on the factors influencing the cultural, economic and social integration of Afghan women in Canada. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Social Work, Carleton University. Abstract sourced from http://amicus.collectionscanada.ca.

Research focus/aims: This Master's thesis explores the cultural, economic and social integration of ten Afghan women living in three Canadian cities.

Participants: Ten Afghan women living in three Canadian cities.

Key findings/outcomes: The author suggests that, while the factors influencing the cultural economic and social integration of the Afghan women are similar, they are not a homogenous group. She suggests that it is important to recognise that their preflight and first country of asylum experiences influence their integration to Canada.

Recommendations: The author suggests that better understanding of the experiences of Afghan women living in Canada and the factors that shape their integration would help in the development of effective programmes and services to meet their needs. This could be facilitated by providing Afghan women with a voice and a means of documenting their experiences in their own words

Scope: Research undertaken for a Master's thesis in social work, based on interviews with ten Afghan women.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; social exclusion; economic participation; women; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Afghanistan; refugees; research methods: interviews.

K2 Collie, P. (2006). No straight lines or tidy boxes: young Assyrian women negotiating identities and educational pathways in New Zealand. A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, Victoria University. Report based on Masters Research Awards - Final Report to BRCSS Network. Retrieved on 4 January 2009 from www.brcss.net/images/Mastersprofiles/collie%20final%20report.doc

Research focus/aims: This Masters thesis focused on two aspects of the life of young Assyrian women in New Zealand - how they respond to questions of cultural maintenance and adaptation, and influences on their education and career pathways.

Participants: 60 young women and 72 Assyrian adults in New Zealand.

Key findings/outcomes: In addressing the questions of cultural maintenance and adaptation in New Zealand, the author found that young women indicated that they wanted to integrate (i.e. to both maintain their culture and adapt to aspects of New Zealand culture). However, the young women were treated as 'different' by other New Zealanders and discouraged from 'acting too Kiwi' by other Assyrians. Participants managed these diverse expectations by alternating between cultures or by combining them together. The paper suggests that these approaches are not always appropriate or effective in situations where the young women face stereotyping or discrimination or where they want to simultaneously convey their loyalty and commitment to the heritage culture and their desire to make some adaptations to it now they are living in New Zealand. The author also found that the participants often changed how they aligned themselves within the course of a conversation rather than across situations (as previously identified in the literature). She suggests that this behaviour is engaging in mindful identity negotiation (a term described by Ting-Toomey 2005^[23]).

In addressing the second topic of educational pathways and career choices, the author concludes that encouragement from family, friends and teachers and the development of a shared or personal goal played a key role in these decisions. The young women identified the following challenges and life commitments as inhibiting their progress along education and career pathways: studying in a new language; getting used to a new teaching style (for example, less strictly disciplined classrooms); inability to get help with schoolwork from home; being an older student; financial constraints; perceived discrimination; and other life interests such as marriage.

Recommendations: The author suggests that future research could investigate:

• whether mindful identity negotiation and feelings of ambivalence and uncertainty about questions of cultural maintenance and adaptation are more prevalent among young people from particular ethnic groups
• what implications these feelings have for psychological and sociocultural adaptation
• whether mindful identity negotiation is associated with superior sociocultural competence and intercultural communication effectiveness
• the impact of being in classes with younger students
• how families on tight budgets with financial obligations overseas make spending decisions on their children's education.

Scope: Findings were derived from a thematic analysis of material gained from 400 hours of ethnographic work, and interviews and focus groups with Assyrian young people, adults, parents and teachers of Assyrian students.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; social exclusion; economic participation; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; women; children/youth; 1.5 generation; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: Middle East; research methods: ethnographic; research methods: interviews; refugees.

K3 Mulvihill, M., Mailloux, L. and Atkin, W. (2001). Advancing policy and research responses to immigrant and refugee women's health in Canada. Winnipeg: Canadian Women's Health Network.

Research focus/aims: This paper presents an overview of Canadian research on immigrant and refugee women's health. It also presents preliminary policy issues and suggests next steps for policy and research development in this area.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The authors identified the following themes and findings as key policy and research issues:

• Research on the sociocultural context of immigrant and refugee women raises questions about the impact on health of variables such as country of origin, age, circumstances of migration, lifestyle changes and economic health. Research also raises questions about how and whether the influence of these factors changes over time. Research is needed to explore whether the underutilisation of preventative services is due to differences in concepts of health and healthcare or whether it is due to systemic barriers.
• A significant body of research was found on the economic integration of immigrant and refugee women in Canada, but there is a need for more research that explores the links between economic wellbeing and health status. The authors outline findings from mainstream populations suggesting that policies and programmes that improve the economic situation of immigrant and refugee women (for example, language and employment programmes) may significantly impact on their health.
• Recent research in the area of mental health has argued that, while recipients of mental health services are often treated on an individual basis, there are important social dimensions to the mental health issues of immigrant and refugee women. The authors suggest that more research on the accessibility of mental health services is needed, especially for those who have experienced premigratory trauma. Initiatives that reduce social isolation have been identified as important to mental health (for example, immigrant women's centres, networking and mentoring, language, employment and retraining programmes).
• There are still significant research gaps on migration and ageing, particularly on ageing within recent immigrant and refugee populations and on community-centred approaches to healthcare delivery. Targeted programmes and services are needed for this population.
• Understanding the complex context of immigrant and refugee women's lives is critical to developing culturally appropriate and accessible healthcare practices and programmes. Accessibility to healthcare can be improved by developing of cultural competency at all levels of the healthcare system along with investigating language barriers, cultural diversity, the effectiveness or necessity of matching the gender/ethnicity of healthcare users and providers, the use of alternative/traditional methods of healing and investing in outreach strategies.

Recommendations: The authors suggest that policy and research concerning the health of immigrant and refugee women need to consider issues of gender and diversity, as well as taking a 'determinants of health perspective' and a population health approach.

Scope: This paper draws together findings from Canadian research on immigrant and refugee women's health, drawing on work undertaken by Kinnon (1999),^[24] Janzen (1998)^[25] and research conducted by Canada's Centres of Excellence for Women's Health and Metropolitan Centres of Excellence.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; women; older refugees; research methods: review; host country/region: Canada; migrants, including refugees.

K4 Stoll, K. and Johnson, P. (2007). 'Determinants of the psychosocial adjustment of southern Sudanese men'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 20(4), 626-40.

Research focus/aims: This research explores the following hypotheses with respect to Sudanese men in Canada:

• Hypothesis 1 - greater financial and emotional role strain from enacting the global breadwinner role is predictive of difficulties in psychosocial adjustment.
• Hypothesis 2 - greater religiosity and more social support are predictive of improved psychosocial adjustment.

Participants: 164 Sudanese men who responded to a questionnaire and who, on average, had been living in Canada for around 3.7 years.

Key findings/outcomes: The questionnaire used by the authors incorporated a 59 item Cultural Adjustment Difficulties Checklist (Sodowsky and Lai 1997^[26]) and contained questions that measured financial role strain, emotional role strain, degree of religiosity (for example, through church attendance), degree of social support, time in Canada, education, marital status, English language proficiency, employment status and psychological and social adjustment. These terms are discussed by the authors.

Of the 164 men, almost all (90.2 percent) indicated they were sending money to family members, and all the men reported that it was important or very important to do so and a similar proportion reported that it was difficult to do so while getting established in Canada. The labour force participation of the Sudanese men was found to be higher that the average for British Columbian men but they earned less and were underemployed when current occupations were compared with those held in Sudan. Findings also indicated that the men perceived a high degree of social support from family, friends and community; regarded themselves as very religious; are generally well-adjusted, suffer little depression and are using healthy coping strategies; and display comparable social adjustment difficulties.

In relation to the hypotheses, the authors found the following:

• Financial strain affected social adjustment in Canada (supporting part of hypothesis 1). They suggest possible reasons for this include having fewer financial resources may translate into fewer opportunities for socialising with friends. A vast majority of men indicated that they could not afford leisure activities, dating (for single men) or entertainment. Socialising may also be affected by a lack of transport.
• The most important variable that facilitated the social adjustment was social support from family and the Sudanese community (supporting hypothesis 2).
• The perceived emotional strain associated with sending remittances to Africa did not have a negative impact on psychosocial adjustment (rejecting part of hypothesis 1). They suggest that this is explained by the findings of Akeui (2004)^[27] who suggests that remittances are important social gestures that give the sender a sense of wellbeing, pride and dignity and that knowledge of the benefits to the recipients outweighs the negative impact on adjustment.
• The psychological resilience of men is facilitated by their religiosity.

Recommendations: The authors make a number of suggestions to improve the capacity of Sudanese men to maintain financial and other ties, to reduce the financial and emotional strain involved in providing for overseas relatives and to provide more opportunities for social interaction in Canada.

Scope: Findings were based on results of a questionnaire completed by 164 Sudanese men living in Canada. Regression analysis was used to establish the relationship between variables.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; ethnic/cultural identity; religion; social capital/networks; transnationalism/diaspora; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; research methods: survey; research methods: test; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Sudan; refugees.

Older refugees

K5 Chenoweth, J. and Burdick, L. (2001). 'The path to integration: meeting the needs of refugee elders in resettlement'. Refuge: Canada's Periodical on Refugees, 20(1), 20-30.

Research focus/aims: Older refugees.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The paper notes that elders play a critical role in upholding family strength and stability through the resettlement period, but few countries provide specific services for them. The paper refers to different culture perceptions of when old age begins and what that role entails. Refugee elders often face a sudden and severe loss of independence due to their inability to speak the language of the host country. They may remain dependent on help with even the smallest tasks and for transport. Many are unfamiliar with social services and are reluctant to use them. In defining integration for older refugees, it is important to consider whether the elder feels respected and valued by the receiving country and its social service providers or, as a result of resettlement, whether the elder has become subservient and undervalued.

Recommendations: The report recommends case management specifically for older refugees to clearly identify the older person's needs. These needs should be seen both individually and holistically within the family unit. Establishing elder refugee programmes requires attention to their needs, policy and resource adjustments, interagency co-operation and input from the elders. It also needs flexibility, creativity and innovation to modify traditional services.

Scope: A literature review with recommendations for intervention.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; role of host country; social exclusion; language acquisition/ESOL; health/wellbeing; older refugees; host country/region: United States; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; refugees; research methods: review.

K6 Connelly, N., Forsythe, L., Njike, G. and Rudiger, A. (2006). Older refugees in the UK: a literature review. Working paper. London: Age Concern and Refugee Council.

Research focus/aims: This literature review examines what is known about older refugees' views, experiences and needs, what gaps exist in the knowledge and evidence base and how these gaps are relevant to policy and practice. It also examines examples of policies or practices that either target or include older refugees in the United Kingdom.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The review argues that 50 or 55 is an appropriate age to define 'older' refugees. Definitions could be pragmatic and contextual and different for different purposes or for people from different countries. The authors point to the need to pay particular attention to older women's perspectives and needs. More research is needed in the areas of health, mobility and social care and more targeted provision to address access, language and cultural issues. The housing needs of older refugees and access to appropriate housing are also discussed. The reviewers identify a lack of evidence regarding the situation of older refugees in the labour market and the social impact of moving from employment in their country of origin to unemployment or low-skilled work. The role of refugee community organisations in supporting older people is discussed as is the effectiveness of family networks in reducing isolation.

Recommendations: The authors identify research questions in the areas of definitions (perceptions of ageing) and demographics of older refugees; legal security; health and social care; housing; education; employment; financial support; information; and family and community networks.

Scope: Literature review mainly focused on literature from the United Kingdom. The focus is on older refugees, not specifically on integration. Possible research questions are included throughout the review.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; citizenship; social capital/networks; community participation; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health; housing; older refugees; women; gender; host country/region: United Kingdom; research methods: review; refugees.

K7 Hugman, R., Bartolomei, L. and Pittaway, E. (2004). 'It's part of your life until you die: older refugees in Australia'. Australasian Journal on Ageing, 23(3), 147-149.

Research focus/aims: To explore perceptions of issues facing older refugees, from the perspective of older refugees and the workers in their communities that assist them.

Participants: Five focus groups with a total of 28 older refugees from five ethnic groups in metropolitan Sydney (Bosnian, Cambodian, Somali, Sudanese and Vietnamese) and ten interviews and a focus group with community workers. No mention of length of time in Australia.

Key findings/outcomes: Roles/status can be reversed within families, with older family members being dependent on younger family members leading to intergenerational tensions (exacerbated by a sense that being a refugee is a necessity rather than a choice).

The impact of trauma manifests in older people wanting to talk about events with younger members of family who are sometimes not interested and wanting to talk about traumatic experiences within the ethnic community because of mistrust of professional services. Community workers mentioned links between the experience of seeking refuge and long-term mental health (for example, depression). All the refugees mentioned a sense of ageing in the wrong place.

Recommendations: There needs to be greater recognition of older refugees in policy and practice, particularly in relation to changing patterns of family relations, long-term effects of the refugee experience and in recognition that 'ordinary communities' are not available to them.

Scope: Small-scale exploratory study based on data derived from interviews and focus groups, which were then coded inductively.

Country research undertaken in: Australia.

Keywords: social capital/networks; ethnic/cultural identity; role of host country; social exclusion; health/wellbeing; older refugees; children/youth; host country/region: Australia; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: interviews; refugees.

K8 Wong, S. (2003). Integration of older refugees: the integration experiences of older Assyrian, Cambodian and Somali refugees in Wellington. A paper submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Graduate Diploma in Science, Victoria University of Wellington.

Research focus/aims: The purpose of this research was to investigate the integration experiences of older refugees into their local New Zealand community including identifying facilitators, barriers and possible improvements to current activities and services.

Participants: 19 refugees aged 50 years and above living in Wellington, New Zealand. All but four or the 19 had been living in New Zealand for five or more years.

Key findings/outcomes: The author identified the main activities and services that older refugees had considered helpful for integrating into the community. These included family reunification, social interactions with family and friends of the same ethnicity, participating in a wide range of activities, and having access to benefits, services and high-skilled employment. Barriers to accessing integration-related activities and services included segregated family and family reunification policies, a lack of access to or understanding of transport options, inability to speak or learn English, poor health, poor access to interpreters, financial limitation and access to networks and support.

Other points to note:

• Refugee backgrounds, age at arrival, the ability of host communities to support the resettlement process and the length of time spent in a country of resettlement influences the level of integration felt by a refugee. The longer refugees spend in the new country, the more time and incentive they have to acquire language skills, establish families and become familiar with their new environment.
• Regardless of the background of refugees and the length of resettlement, in order to feel integrated into the community, the majority of older refugees require social interactions with family and friends, family responsibilities, access to religious services and ethnic community networks.
• Over time and with increased familiarity with their new environment, older refugees find activities that expose them to the wider community (for example, employment, non-ethnic-specific clubs and promoting culture) that are useful for long-term integration.

Recommendations: The paper concludes stating that the research has shown that well-integrated refugees have the potential to provide many benefits to their families and the community; therefore, it is important for older refugees to be given the support they need. This paper made a range of suggestions for improving the level of integration of older refugees. Suggestions included reviewing government policies on family reunification and social welfare benefits for older refugees, and involving stakeholders in the reviews; evaluating the effectiveness of and enhancing and tailoring policies and programmes for older refugees; educating older refugees on their rights to essential services and setting realistic expectations on the delivery and provision of such services; identifying avenues for involving older refugees in planning, decision making and implementing stages of integration-related activities; and involving ethnic communities, religious groups and families in the development of integration-related activities and services for older people.

Scope: This was a research paper prepared as part of a Graduate Diploma in Science. Interviews were conducted with six Assyrian refugees, seven Cambodian refugees and six Somali refugees living in Wellington, New Zealand.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; religion; transnationalism/diaspora; social capital/networks; community participation; role of host country; social exclusion; economic participation; health/wellbeing; older refugees; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; refugees.

Refugees with disabilities

K9 Ward, K., Amas, N. and Lagnado, J. (2008). Supporting disabled refugees and asylum seekers: opportunities for new approaches. London: Refugee Support, Metropolitan Support Trust.

Research focus/aims: The research identifies how refugee community and mainstream organisations assist and support disabled asylum seekers and refugees in London. For the purposes of this research, disability included not only physical impairments but other impairments such as mental health impairments, learning difficulties, brain injury, autistic spectrum disorder and sensory impairments. It required that impairment to have a significant effect on daily life, and this could relate to the negative attitudes of others to disability.

Participants: Interviewees from a range of London-based organisations that had some involvement or focus on refugees, and 21 refugees or asylum seekers (of mixed age, gender, ethnicities and disability type).

Key findings/outcomes: The authors provide a brief outline of the policy context affecting asylum seekers, refugees and disabled people in London, as well as a review of the research literature relevant to refugees and asylum seekers with disabilities in the United Kingdom. With respect to refugees, the United Kingdom's national integration strategy Integration Matters (2005) [A28] focuses on increasing refugees' access to services and support to enhance their integration into society. At the regional level, the Greater London Authority's 2007 Draft Strategy for Refugee Integration in London^[28] specifically refers to disabled asylum seekers and refugees. This document highlighted the need to pilot employment training programmes targeted at more isolated groups such as refugee women with children, older refugees and disabled refugees, and calling for actions that recognise the specific issues facing disabled children.

The authors found only a limited amount of research on disabled refugees or asylum seekers in the United Kingdom, which means that little is known about this population in terms of their experiences, needs and ability to access services. A major piece of work on disabilities among refugees and asylum seeker communities was undertaken between 1999 and 2002 and resulted in a range of publications (for example, Roberts and Harris 2001^[29]). These researchers found that: the law around this group is complex and not well understood by voluntary and statutory service providers; data is not collected on the extent and nature of impairments; and this population experiences isolation, unmet personal needs, communication difficulties and faces barriers trying to access social services and benefits.

The authors found that a substantial amount of research had been undertaken on mental health issues in relation to refugees and asylum seekers and suggest more is known about this aspect of disability.

From their review activities and field research, the authors concluded the following:

• While other agencies (such as refugee organisations and citizens advice bureaux) provide information and advice to disabled refugees and asylum seekers, RCOs are disproportionately taking the strain of providing disability support for London's refugees and asylum seekers. These organisations are often staffed by volunteers and have to balance providing disability support alongside a range of other services. RCOs have become part of an information network of friends, family and community that strives to meet the diverse array of care needs. The RCOs were found to be falling short of comprehensively meeting the needs of disabled refugees and asylum seekers, due to reasons such as a lack of staff, lack of knowledge about disability law and policy and insufficient funding.
• There remains a considerable support gap between the specialist refugee sector and mainstream disability sector.
• There is a lack of reliable and comprehensive data on disabled refugees and asylum seekers. Data that does exist suggests that mental health issues are the most common cause of disability, followed to a much lesser extent by physical disability.
• A great deal of confusion exists about entitlements to benefits, both among providers and potential disabled refugee and asylum seeker recipients.
• Some barriers to care and support reported by interviewees are shared with other disabled ethnic minority populations. These included language; stigma and culturally determined attitudes towards disability and treatment of disability; extra hardship experienced by women; isolation and lack of understanding about rights and entitlements.
• Additional barriers are faced by refugees and asylum seekers with disabilities including difficulties in finding appropriate interpreters (including sign interpreters) given the vast array of languages spoken by these groups, refugees and asylum seekers are less likely to have existing social networks to rely on for informal support, the forced migration experience can present a range of symptoms that are unfamiliar to service providers (including the physical and mental impacts of war, torture, sexual violence or bereavement and the asylum process itself - in many cases, these intersect and result in multiple and compounding symptoms within one individual).

Recommendations: The authors make a range of recommendations aimed at a range of levels (disability organisations, statutory sector organisations, refugee support organisations). Recommendations address improvements to data collection, opportunities for working collaboratively, training, consultation and participation of those representing disabled refugees and asylum seekers.

Further research is also recommended including into the extent, nature and support needs of disabled refugee and asylum seeker groups particularly those with 'invisible' disabilities such as HIV and epilepsy, those with learning disabilities, carers and children.

Scope: A literature review and three-phase qualitative study. The first phase involved 51 short telephone interviews with members of staff responsible for service provision in a range of organisations providing support to refugees and asylum seekers and/or to those with disabilities. In the second phase, in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with staff members from 19 of these organisations. In the third phase, 21 in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with refugees and asylum seekers.

Country research undertaken in: United Kingdom.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; women; children/youth; disability; research methods: review; research methods: interviews; host country/region: United Kingdom; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; refugees, including asylum seekers.

Children, youth and 1.5 generation

K10 Campbell, G. (2003). The intergenerational settlement of refugee children in New Zealand: a report on the findings of a survey conducted for the New Zealand Refugee and Migrant Service. Wellington: The New Zealand Refugee and Migrant Service.

Research focus/aims: The research focused on the academic and vocational qualifications obtained by former refugee children aged 14 years or younger on arrival who arrived in New Zealand between 1945 and 1995 and those of their children.

Participants: 120 former refugees who met the criteria above (86 were Polish and the remaining 32 were of mixed ethnicities) and 38 second generation New Zealanders born to refugee parents.

Key findings/outcomes: The author briefly describes the circumstances by which the Polish children became refugees, their situation before arrival in New Zealand and events that occurred after they arrived. Virtually all the Polish former refugees who returned the questionnaire said they could not speak any English when they arrived in New Zealand. In addition, they all had spent at least two years without their natural parents (generally because both parents had died) so, prior to arrival, had lacked parental guidance and encouragement. Findings are presented on the highest qualification gained by age of arrival for the former refugees and the highest qualification gained by children born in New Zealand to former refugees.

The author concludes that age on arrival appeared to have a marked effect on later educational success. The highest number of those who left school with no formal qualifications arrived in New Zealand at the age of 11 or older. The authors acknowledge that, for those refugees who arrived in the middle of the 1940s, leaving school early may have been in response to the economic climate and social attitudes of that time. Seventy-seven of the 120 respondents had gained some sort of qualification since leaving school, and 90 percent of the second generation respondents had gained some form of tertiary qualification.

Recommendations: None.

Scope: Findings are based on responses to a postal questionnaire sent to former refugees and their children.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; education/training; children/youth; second generation; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: Poland; Source country/region: mixed ethnicities; refugees.

K11 Couch, J. (2007). 'Mind the gap: considering the participation of refugee young people'. Youth Studies Australia, 26(4), 37-44.

Research focus/aims: The paper explores the benefits and risks of involving refugee young people in participation processes.

Participants: Young refugees in Melbourne.

Key findings/outcomes: The author discusses the potential benefits of refugee youth participation in consultation and decision making. These include enhancing their commitment, contributing to their self-image and enhancing their resilience. The challenges include cultural constraints, particularly relating to youth empowerment. She notes that working with young people in isolation from their family situations risks loosening family ties that may be the young person's first line of protection. Programmes also need to take gender dimensions into account and acknowledge that young people often have to contribute to the maintenance of the household, take care of siblings, gain employment or go to school.

Recommendations: Programmes must take into account the issue of refugee young people's settlement experience, alienation and society's denial of their status and worth.

Scope: This is a discussion piece based on the author's experience of working with young refugees.

Country research undertaken in: Australia.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; role of host country; economic participation; health/wellbeing; gender; children/youth; host country/region: Australia; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: discussion paper; refugees.

K12 Higgins, J. (2008). Annotated bibliography of New Zealand literature on migrant and refugee youth. Wellington: Department of Labour.

Research focus/aims: This annotated bibliography was commissioned by the Department of Labour to provide a comprehensive account of the current evidence on settlement and social inclusion for migrant and refugee young people in New Zealand. The bibliography aims to identify evidence relating to factors that facilitate or act as barriers to the successful settlement and inclusion of these young people.

Participants: None.

Key findings/outcomes: The author found that there was a growing body of New Zealand literature about key groups of young migrants, with considerably less research specifically focused on refugee youth. Some literature focused on young people who are new arrivals to New Zealand and the provision of ESOL in schools. Much of the research focused on educational needs of refugee youth.

The author suggests that, in addition to the significant cultural change experienced by all young migrants, refugee youth are also likely to be dealing with the consequence of upheaval and trauma in their lives and may have experienced a disrupted form of schooling or no schooling at all. This disruption is identified as having implications for integration into the New Zealand school system and for post-employment prospects.

Research on intergenerational relationships has identified the importance of the family as a central social network for refugee and migrant youth, as well as being a site of tension as they negotiate transitions between heritage culture and that of the host society (including developing relationships with peers).

There is little research on the accessing of mainstream or specialist social services by refugee and migrant youth (aside from mental health services) or on the expression of identity through participation in civic, social and community activities. Some research undertaken by refugees or migrants, or their children, has focused on the experiences of being a young refugee or migrant in New Zealand. A few projects have suggested that some refugee and migrant youth do not feel safe expressing their ethnic identity outside their own communities.

Recommendations: The author suggests that there is a need for more research to help develop policies and practices to address the significant challenges faced by refugee youth. Given the vulnerable nature of this group, the author suggests any research developed must be designed in consultation with the refugee community including young people themselves. Particular areas of research gap include the school-to-work transition; the effects of family disruption on mental health and wellbeing; the services accessed by young people; identity/participation; use of electronic communications technologies; employment or family commitments managed alongside schooling; and aspects of the civic, social and community participation of refugee and migrant young people. Finally, the author suggests that the research community should consider ways of encouraging young refugees and migrants to become researchers in work that looks to address and enhance their social inclusion in New Zealand society.

Scope: A review of the New Zealand literature on migrant and refugee youth.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; language maintenance; civic/political participation; transnationalism/diaspora; social capital/networks; community participation; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; gender; children/youth.

K13 Humpage, L. and Fleras, A. (2000). 'Systemic bias and the marginalisation of Somali refugee adolescents within New Zealand education'. New Zealand Sociology, 15(1), 46-74.

Research focus/aims: The research identifies areas of systemic bias affecting Somali refugee adolescents at New Zealand schools.

Participants: Somali refugee adolescents and stakeholders.

Key findings/outcomes: The author identifies the following areas of systemic bias in New Zealand education settings:

• Learning and teaching rituals - The students lack what is assumed to be 'universal' knowledge and are inexperienced in working independently of the teacher or in group settings.
• Organisational rituals - The students are unused to making notes in class, organising them and using them to complete assignments.
• Role conflicts and confusion - Unfamiliar gender roles are particularly challenging, behaviour can differ from expectations and age-related roles differ from those expected in Somalia.
• Uniform rules do not take account of cultural difference.

Recommendations: Cultural accommodation needs to be a two-way process between ethnic groups and schools and must result in the transformation of educational institutions to succeed.

Scope: A qualitative study based on 35 interviews with Somali students and other stakeholders.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; role of host country; education/training; children/youth; gender; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: Somalia; research methods: interviews; refugees.

K14 Hyman, I., Vu, N. and Beiser, M. (2000). 'Post-migration stresses among Southeast Asian refugee youth in Canada: a research note'. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 31(2), 281-295.

Research focus/aims: The study focuses on the experiences of Southeast Asian youth in Canada.

Participants: First generation Southeast Asian youth in Toronto.

Key findings/outcomes: For most participants, adjustment to a new school was the most difficult experience. They experienced marginalisation and cultural conflict. Lack of English fluency was a major source of school stress and created social and academic frustration. Students had to adjust to unfamiliar cultural values at school. Communication difficulties and high parent expectations caused conflicts at home. Most of the youth expressed respect for their parents' values and a desire to maintain the language and way of life. However, they were also attracted to sometimes incompatible Canadian values and practices. Many were ambivalent about their ethnic identity. Some were conscious that other Canadians viewed Vietnamese in a less than sympathetic light.

Recommendations: Recognition of the multiple stresses experienced by Southeast Asian youth should help improve the cultural sensitivity of educators and clinicians working with this group. Orientation programmes to help families identify competing intrafamilial and host country values and greater parental involvement in the school system would help to alleviate family tensions.

Scope: This was a qualitative study among Southeast Asian youth in Toronto. It formed the basis for an epidemiological study reported elsewhere.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; language maintenance; role of host country; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; health/wellbeing; children/youth; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Southeast Asia; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.

K15 Kenny, M. (2007). The integration experience of Somali refugee youth in Ottawa, Canada: "Failure is not an option for us". Thesis completed in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Master of Arts, Carleton University. Abstract only. Sourced from http://amicus.collectionscanada.ca.

Research focus/aims: This purpose of this thesis was to better understand the impact of the refugee experience on the integration process, as well as to explore the factors that hamper and/or assist the integration of Somali youth.

Participants: Young Somali refugees in Canada who were under the age of ten when they arrived and who, at the time of participation, were aged between 15 and 24.

Key findings/outcomes: This study examined how culture, identity, schools, the ethnic community, the youths' larger social world, family and gender weave together to shape the integration experience.

The young people interviewed faced similar barriers to integration such as low socioeconomic status as a result of migration, issues associated with poverty, language, and single female- headed households. The author found that, for this group of youth, "failure is not an option". The full thesis includes a chapter reviewing the literature on children and youth, including the psychological and social factors that may hamper or assist the integration of youth. Two chapters then present findings from interviews and focus groups on perceived factors affecting the integration and lives of young Somalis in Ottawa and what they would do if they were 'in charge' of making decisions in their neighbourhood.

Recommendations: The full thesis contains suggestions developed by the author and the Somali youth participants on how the integration of Somali youth in Ottawa might be improved. The author also suggests that, when studying the integration experience of youth, it is necessary to examine the subject at the individual level as well as in the context of the family and the larger social world.

Scope: Findings are drawn from ethnographic research, literature review, and interviews and discussion with Somali youth and community organisations.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; health/wellbeing; women; children/youth; research methods: ethnographic; research methods: review; research methods: interviews; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Somalia; refugees.

K16 Kumsa, M. (2006). '"No! I'm not a refugee!" The poetics of be-longing among young Oromos in Toronto'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 19(2), 230-255.

Research focus/aims: The author aims to address a research gap on the experiences of young refugees in Canada. She states her focus as on "poetics of national be-longing". Her use of the hyphenated word 'be-longing' emphasises the affinity and longing (regarding nation) that is inherent in the word belonging while 'poetics' refers to metaphorical extensions of selfhood.

Participants: 18 young refugees who identified as Oromo living in Toronto. They were either high school (the majority) or university students.

Key findings/outcomes: The statement "No! I'm not a refugee!" is a quote from a young refugee who did not want to be associated with trickery, deceit or cheating, which were perceived to be associated with being a refugee. The author uses quotes from the discussion that occurred in the focus groups to illustrate the young people's views on the refugee label.

In her analysis, the author argues that all forms of identity are constructed through the social interaction of 'self' and 'other'. She applies a framework she has developed, based on concepts of dispersal and affinity, which she argues provides a contextual and relational understanding of refugee experience. In this framework, dispersal signifies the violence of disrupting ties, and hurling refugee bodies into global space, as well as dislocation and displacement. Affinity signifies refugee resistance to disruption, dislocation and displacement, and a yearning to relocate disrupted social ties as well as intense longings to be-long. The author suggests dispersal and affinity occur within four paradoxical spaces: the relational space, the reflexive space, the temporal space and the glocal (an intertwining of local and global) space. These settings are described along with the implications for refugee studies.

Recommendations: None.

Scope: Findings are based on in-depth individual and group discussions carried out over a period of seven weeks and an analysis of literature.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: definitions or models; ethnic/cultural identity; social capital/networks; transnationalism/diaspora; social exclusion; health/wellbeing; defining refugees; youth; research methods: ethnographic; research methods: interview; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Ethiopia; refugees.

K17 Rousseau, C. and Drapeau, A. (2003). 'Are refugee children an at-risk group? A longitudinal study of Cambodian adolescents'. Journal of Refugee Studies, 16(1), 67-81.

Research focus/aims: The paper explored the discrepancy between the intensity of psychiatric symptoms and the social adjustment of adolescent refugees.

Participants: Cambodian adolescents in Quebec.

Key findings/outcomes: Several studies have shown that, with young refugees, diagnostic status does not necessarily relate to functional status. In this study, social competence, academic difficulty and gender of young Cambodians was not significantly related to emotional and behavioural symptoms. The profile of emotional and behavioural symptoms reported by Cambodian-born adolescents and native Quebecois was similar, but the latter reported more risk behaviours than Cambodians.

Recommendations: Population studies should assess adjustment variables in addition to symptoms with the attendant risk of pathologising the experience of children as passive victims rather than active survivors.

Scope: The researchers followed 57 young Cambodians for four years and compared them with a peer group of 45 native Quebecois. Young people and their parents were interviewed. Cambodian adolescents were growing up in harsher economic environments than their peers.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion: indicators or measures; social capital/networks; health/wellbeing; children/youth; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: Cambodia; research methods: interviews; refugees.

K18 Trickett, E., Birman, D. and Persky, I. (2003). The acculturalisation and adaptation of adolescent Vietnamese refugees in Maryland. Research supported by a grant from the Maryland Office for New Americans of the Maryland Department of Human Resources, Retrieved on 9 January 2009 from www.dhr.state.md.us/mona/pdf/vietnam.pdf.

Research focus/aims: The purpose of this study was to understand the acculturation and adaptation of Vietnamese adolescents to allow comparison with an earlier study of Soviet Jewish adolescents (Birman 1994).^[30]

Participants: 159 first and second generation Vietnamese adolescents living in Maryland, United States.

Key findings/outcomes: The authors defined the process of acculturation as the "overarching task of refugees in terms of their coming to grips with life in their new land. Acculturation refers to changes in behaviour, identification, values, language and other aspects of one's culture as a result of migration to the new culture." These elements were explored in interviews and focus groups.

In response to a question on identification, just under one-third (31 percent) of participants regarded themselves as more Vietnamese than American, while 16 percent regarded themselves as more American than Vietnamese. Nearly half (48 percent) thought of themselves as equally American and Vietnamese, and a very small proportion considered themselves as neither American nor Vietnamese (3 percent) or identified in another way (2 percent). When generation was considered, 34 percent of all first generation participants were more likely to consider themselves as more Vietnamese, compared with 23 percent of all second generation participants. Conversely, 28 percent of second generation participants were more likely to consider themselves as more American, compared to 12 percent of the first generation participants.

A language, identity, and behaviour scale was used to assess acculturation to Vietnamese and American culture. For the sample as a whole, acculturation to American culture was higher than retention of Vietnamese culture. Participants rated competence in English more highly than competence in Vietnamese and engaged in American behaviours far more than Vietnamese behaviours. However, Vietnamese identity remains higher than American identity. The authors suggest that this demonstrates the complexity and multidimensionality of acculturation. When generation is considered, first generation adolescents are significantly less Americanised and more Vietnamese than second generation adolescents, including with respect to language and behaviour. However the two groups are similar with respect to Vietnamese identity.

Other findings related to participants' ability to write in English and Vietnamese; their views on their future identity as adults; religious affiliation; social integration and sources of social support; their role as cultural broker (helping their family translate American culture); their degree of decision making autonomy; elements of family life; experience of acculturation hassles (including with parents, peers, school, language and discrimination in daily lives); elements of self-esteem, predictors of psychological adjustment, elements of school adjustment and expectations for success; and predictors of school outcomes.

The report concluded that Vietnamese adolescents appeared to be adapting relatively well to life in the United States as evidenced by their psychological wellbeing, school achievement and friendships with other American adolescents. Adolescents also value their Vietnamese cultural identity, which they wish to retain as adults, and to continue to have friendships with other Asian and Vietnamese peers. Academic success was an important goal for both adolescents and their parents. Parents may place pressure on them to do well at school but may not be in a position to help and support them because they are not familiar with the American education system. This means adolescents have to motivate themselves to succeed, with those who expect more of themselves achieving greater success.

The majority of hassles experienced by the adolescents were with their parents concerning retaining Vietnamese identity and the cultural broker role. The degree of autonomy desired by second generation adolescents was higher than for first generation refugees. The second generation group wanted to be able to make a wider range of decisions and be responsible for many tasks at an earlier age than the first generation adolescents. While parents of both first and second generation adolescents functioned in a similar manner, second generation adolescents were less satisfied with their family life (because they wished for more decision making) than first generation adolescents.

Recommendations: None.

Scope: Findings were drawn from interview and focus groups.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; language maintenance; social capital/networks; social exclusion; education/training; ESOL/language acquisition; health/wellbeing; children/youth; first generation; second generation; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Vietnam; research methods: test; research methods: interviews; refugees.

K19 Um, K. (2003). A dream denied: educational experiences of Southeast Asian American youth: issues and recommendations. An issue paper based on findings from the first national Southeast Asian Youth Summit, University of California, Berkeley, 9 December 2000. Washington: Southeast Asian Resource Action Centre (SEARAC).

Research focus/aims: This paper reports the findings of roundtable discussions held at the first national Southeast Asian Youth Summit. These roundtable discussions aimed to identify barriers that Southeast Asian students face in secondary and post-secondary education and to generate policy and programme recommendations to address those concerns.

Participants: Summit participants (number unspecified) from the Southeast Asian countries of Laos, Vietnam or Cambodia, the majority of whom came to the United States as refugees or were the children of refugees. Roundtable participants included students in high school or undergraduate and graduate programmes, young professionals, advocates, practitioners and policy makers from six states. Other findings came from 106 college (university) respondents to a questionnaire.

Key findings/outcomes: Summit findings and those from the questionnaire were consistent and together identified the following barriers to educational advancements:

• Students having little or no access to information about the importance of higher education and college preparatory courses and to other essential information about college admission.
• Students having limited access to support from both family and school. Those who had done well academically attributed their success to the availability of support and positive reinforcement from family members and school staff. Other students were from families that faced severe constraints, including parents with no or little formal education, who may have limited English proficiency and only a limited understanding of the US educational system. Some participants would have also appreciated much more support from school teachers or counsellors. This included more accurate assessment of their educational needs and ESOL needs (for example, addressing academic English as well as conversational needs). Some described a trend to place Southeast Asian students in remedial or vocational (as opposed to academic) streams and/or being discouraged from seeking a college career.
• Educators holding stereotypes or having low expectations from the academic ability of students (particularly Cambodian and Laotian students). Some students felt that they were labelled as gangsters, 'at risk' or being of limited ability because of the clothes they wear, the music they enjoy and their manner of speech. Of those that had achieved well, some felt they had been directed towards mathematics and science courses because of stereotyping.
• Those in paraprofessional and teaching support roles (including bilingual teachers and community liaison staff) being the only resources that Southeast Asian adolescents have. There may be very few people in these positions relative to the number of students, and these positions are often very under-resourced. In addition, paraprofessional and teaching support staff often themselves face discrimination within the school system and are not an adequate source of support (alternative to school educators or counsellors).
• Very few students having access to community-based educational support, with those that do possibly being prevented from participating in them because of a lack of transport or family responsibilities. Another issue is that many Southeast Asian parents may not recognise the importance of extracurricular activities. Students may also have to balance academic and family responsibilities, and women students may be expected to come home straight after class.
• Racism, with Southeast Asian youth being subject to two extremes. On the one hand, they are lumped together with other Asian youth as the model minority and assumed to experience no educational challenges or racism (which may result in their learning needs not being identified). At the other extreme, they are depicted as a traumatised community of welfare dependents, high school dropouts and delinquents. Other racism was thought to be negative perceptions of Southeast Asians linked to the US role in Southeast Asia, in particular the Vietnam war or as portrayed in media.
• A lack of Southeast Asian language/history courses, particularly language courses at the secondary level. Participants felt that they would like to have the choice to acquire or enhance competence in their native language and not be forced to learn another foreign language in order to fulfil curriculum requirements. Similarly, they identified a lack of opportunity to learn about their own histories as Southeast Asians and about the histories of their countries.

Recommendations: Key recommendations included:

• promoting parent, youth and community advocacy to address the educational needs of Southeast Asian youth
• rethinking the existing education curriculum to reflect more accurately the complexity of American history and society
• fostering collaboration among stakeholders to enhance the educational achievement of Southeast Asians in secondary and post-secondary institutions
• creating a scholarship programme and co-ordinating institution
• organising activities such as parent-student conferences to strengthen intergenerational communication.

Scope: Findings were drawn from roundtable discussions at a Youth Summit and from responses to a written questionnaire.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: ethnic/cultural identity; language maintenance; role of host country; social capital/networks; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; gender; children/youth; second generation; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Southeast Asia; migrants, including refugees.

K20 Ward, C. (2008). The experiences of migrant youth: a generational analysis. Wellington: Department of Labour.

Research focus/aims: This research is part of a larger international project, the International Comparative Study of Ethno-cultural Youth, undertaken in 13 countries with almost 8,000 adolescents and young adults. The project examines a range of intracultural and intercultural variables, such as ethnic and English language proficiency and use, peer contacts, identity, acculturation attitudes, family values, perceived discrimination, and both psychological (life satisfaction and psychological symptoms) and social (school adjustment and behavioural problems) domains of adaptation.

Participants: The comparisons are based on the responses of 1,226 New Zealand adolescents and young adults; that is, 744 migrant (including refugee) youth and 482 national (New Zealand European and Maori) youth. The migrant or refugee youth includes 201 first generation (immigrant youth who were born overseas and arrived in New Zealand after the age of 12), 402 1.5 generation (immigrant youth who were born overseas and arrived in New Zealand by the age of 12) and 141 second generation (New Zealand-born youth with both parents born overseas) adolescents and young adults.

Key findings/outcomes: Overall, the results of this research are in accordance with international findings on generational changes in migrant communities:

• Migrant youth have a strong orientation towards their heritage culture, and this largely remains stable across generations as evidenced by strong ethnic identity and frequent contact with ethnic peers; however, ethnic language use and proficiency decrease over successive generations.
• Migrant youth increasingly orient themselves towards the larger New Zealand society. This is evidenced by an increase in national identity, an increase in national peer contacts and more frequent use of and greater proficiency in English over successive generations.
• There are variations in acculturation attitudes over generations. Integration (the preference to maintain cultural heritage and participate in the wider society) is strongly endorsed and remains stable over generations. In contrast, while assimilation (participation gained at the expense of cultural maintenance) is not widely endorsed, it is better accepted amongst second generation youth.
• There are few changes in family values over generations, although first generation migrants see parental obligations as more important than their second generation peers. All migrant groups are less likely to endorse children's rights and more likely to endorse parental obligations than national youth.
• Migrant youth report more discrimination than their national peers, but this does not vary significantly over generations.
• Migrant youth fare as well or better than their national counterparts in terms of psychological adaptation. There are no significant differences in life satisfaction between groups; however, migrant youth report fewer symptoms of psychological distress. Psychological symptomatology does not vary across generations.
• Migrant youth report better social adaptation than their national peers; however, there is some evidence that this advantage diminishes over successive generations. For example, second generation migrants report more behavioural problems and poorer school adjustment than their first and 1.5 generation counterparts.

Recommendations: The findings suggest that a view to the future should consider ways in which participation can be encouraged without threat to cultural maintenance in migrant communities.

Scope: This report is based on a subset of the New Zealand data collected through a survey and provides:

• a generational analysis of the experiences of migrant youth
• where appropriate, comparisons between migrant and national youth.

Country research undertaken in: New Zealand.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; language maintenance; social capital/networks; social exclusion; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; children/youth; 1.5 generation; second generation; host country/region: New Zealand; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; migrants, including refugees.

K21 Weine, S., Feetham, S., Kulauzovic, Y., Knafl, K., Besic, S., Klebic, A., Mujagic, R., Muzurovic, J., Spahovic, M. and Pavkovic, M. (2006). 'A family beliefs framework for socially and culturally specific preventive interventions with refugee youths and families'. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(1), 9.

Research focus/aims: The study identified processes by which refugee families adapt and apply family beliefs concerning youth.

Participants: Bosnian refugees.

Key findings/outcomes: The study identified four clusters of family beliefs about refugee youth: obliging family; keeping tradition; working hard; and living through children. Contextual factors interacting with family beliefs included traditions, family togetherness, war memories, economic opportunities, American culture and disappointing schools. Family members described behaviours that showed how they adapted their family beliefs to their situation.

One group of parents reported having very little support or guidance in coping with urban fears, war traumas, isolation and lack of information. A second group had become more involved in their young people's school and had strong links with other parents, almost all of whom were Bosnian. One group of youth wanted more family time and mentoring while a second group had become alienated from their families, had no supervision, accessed no services and preferred working over school.

Recommendations: The authors suggest that those working with young people and their families need to take into account the impact of family beliefs, family behaviours and the information available to youth and their parents.

Scope: This is a qualitative study based on group discussions with youth and families in Chicago. Statements were coded to develop a grounded theory.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; social capital/networks; community participation; role of host country; education/training; host country/region: United States; source country/region: Bosnia; research methods: interviews; refugees.

K22 Wilkinson, L. (2001). 'The integration of refugee youth in Canada'. Abstract only. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 62(5), 1953-A.

Research focus/aims: The research investigated how well refugee youth integrate into Canada.

Participants: 91 refugee youth who arrived in Alberta between 1992 and 1997.

Key findings/outcomes: Refugee youth appear to be more integrated than the relevant literature suggests. For example, three-quarters of refugee youth stated that they feel like 'real' Canadians. Just over 70 percent of refugee youth indicated that keeping their heritage culture is important to them, suggesting that their integration is best understood within a multicultural framework. Second, the majority of refugee youth were relatively successful in the Canadian education system. Despite the fact that 40 percent of refugee youth were placed in grades too low for their age when they arrived in Canada, most were able to 'catch up' within a short time. Over half of refugee youth were on track for postsecondary education, should they choose to go. The occupational aspirations of refugee youth were comparable to those of Canadian-born youth, suggesting that, in this sense, integration had occurred. A number of the factors (for example, family socioeconomic status) typically found to influence educational success and occupational aspirations among Canadian-born youth appeared to be of less importance for refugee youth. Furthermore, the traumatic experiences of being a refugee (for example, having spent time in a refugee camp) did not have such a large effect. The study showed that Yugoslavian refugee youth generally performed better in the education system than did youth from other countries.

Recommendations: None included in abstract.

Scope: A relatively small-scale study but it does have the advantage of looking at youth five to ten years after settlement.

Country research undertaken in: Canada.

Keywords: integration/social cohesion; ethnic/cultural identity; education/training; children/youth; host country/region: Canada; source country/region: mixed ethnicities; research methods: survey; refugees.

K23 Young, T., Spigner, C., Farwell, N. and Stubblefield, M. (2006). 'Defining "community": perceptions of east African and Southeast Asian immigrant and refugee youths residing in public housing sites'. Journal of Immigrant and Refugee Studies, 4(4), 55-68.

Research focus/aims: The authors begin by acknowledging the complexities involved with defining 'community' and provide several definitions, concluding that "definitions of community include a shared notion of togetherness, united by common history or goals, sharing and participating in activities, culture and ideology".

'Outsiders' often assume that refugee and immigrant youth living in public housing constitute a community. This study aimed to explore how teenagers with refugee and immigrant status themselves perceive community.

Participants: East African and Southeast Asian refugees aged 12-17 living in Seattle public housing sites.

Key findings/outcomes: Transcripts of focus groups were analysed using content analysis and three key themes in relation to community. Concepts of 'community' were framed in terms of 'location', 'identity' and 'interests'. Under 'location', participants discussed geographic location, personal safety and the threat of violence. Under 'identity', they referred to experiencing cultural ambivalence, desiring respect and feeling pride in ethnic diversity. Under 'interests', they referred to participation in youth-oriented activities and sharing values and similarities in lifestyles with American peers. They indicated more of an awareness of their ascribed status as racial/ethnic minority teens than as refugees and immigrants, although the latter was not lost on them.

Recommendations: The characteristics of being refugees and immigrants of low-income status and holding the ascribed status of racial and ethnic minorities in the United States should not be ignored in designing youth intervention programmes.

Scope: A study based on six focus groups with 39 teenagers in three Seattle public housing sites.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: social capital/networks; ethnic/cultural identity; children/youth; host country/region: United States; source country/region: East Africa; source country/region: Southeast Asia; research methods: interviews; migrants, including refugees.

K24 Zhou, M. and Bankston III, C. (2000). Straddling two social worlds: the experience of Vietnamese refugee children in the United States. Urban Diversity Series No. 111. Eric Clearinghouse on Urban Education, Institute for Urban and Minority Education.

Research focus/aims: This monograph aims to provide a general account of the current state of Vietnamese America and to summarise existing research findings on Vietnamese children, both those born in the United States as well as those born in Vietnam and raised in the United States. The stated goal of the paper is to help educators, administrators, social workers and other who work with Vietnamese youth to deal effectively with their problems and encourage their achievement.

Participants: Not applicable.

Key findings/outcomes: The report is in five parts:

• The first part provides a brief history of the Vietnam war, refugee exodus and arrival in US.
• The second part describes the American context that received the refugees, focusing on how the premigration characteristics of the parent generation and the resettlement process have affected the adaptation of children.
• The third part focuses on Vietnamese American families and communities and how distinct social processes of Vietnamese family life can create social capital, which helps to overcome disadvantages associated with parents' low socioeconomic status and ghettoised conditions in inner city neighbourhoods.
• The fourth part examines various aspects of the adaptation of Vietnamese children, especially schooling.
• The fifth part provides recommendations.

This article suggests that, for adult immigrants, finding employment and housing is central to adaptation to a new land, whereas for children and immigrant offspring, success in school is the yardstick of their adjustment, because of the amount of time spent at school and the effects of the 'information age', which has intensified the importance of schooling and narrowed the opportunities available to those with little formal schooling. Findings from the research and theoretical literature are presented under the headings language, bicultural conflicts between home and school, gender roles, and ethnic involvement, and these lead to the recommendations detailed below.

There is also an in-depth discussion of some of the conflicts experienced within the Vietnamese refugees' community. Interesting points include the following:

• The cultural orientation received by refugees in the camps prior to arriving in the US emphasised the importance of economic independence (versus dependence on the state). It is suggested that this orientation had the effect of pushing people into minimum wage jobs and to new arrivals feeling emotionally conflicted over receiving the assistance they need to survive on arrival in the US.
• The premigration characteristics of Vietnamese refugees were found to differ from other contemporary migrants in that they were mainly rural (except for the first wave in 1974), had minimal formal education, had few marketable skills, had little proficiency in English, had little knowledge of a highly industrialised society, did not have a pre-existing community that could help with assistance with many having experienced hardships in camps and came to the United States without personal or financial assets.
• A feature of Vietnamese families is that they generally arrived as extended family groups as opposed to isolated individuals.

Recommendations: The recommendations are intended for those working with Vietnamese youth and include points to note. Main points included that working with Vietnamese children:

• needs to involve seeing them in familial and community contexts
• may require working with their elders
• needs to recognise they often experience considerable pressure from their families and communities and may need culturally sensitive assistance in coping with it
• needs to recognise that even apparently well-adjusted children often feel the pressures and anxieties of bicultural conflicts and that the most effective way of managing bicultural problems lies in the development of bicultural ties and skills.

A number of other recommendations concerned the importance of using the resources offered by the Vietnamese community, counsellors and the community, as well as the need to strengthen connection between schools, at-risk children and the Vietnamese community and, finally, that Vietnamese language classes and other programmes featuring ethnic culture can enhance scholastic performance.

Scope: Discussion paper, drawing from research on the Vietnamese community in the United States, woven in with segmented assimilation theory with presentation of numeric information on different aspects of refugee youth experience and achievement.

Country research undertaken in: United States.

Keywords: Social capital/networks; education/training; language acquisition/ESOL; economic participation; housing; children/youth; 1.5 generation; source country/region: Vietnam; host country/region: United States; Integration/social cohesion; research methods: discussion paper.

^[6] Safran, W. (1991). 'Diasporas in modern societies: myths of homeland and return'. Diaspora. 1(1), 83-99.

^[22] Hiebert, D., D'Addario, S. and Sherrell, K. (2005). The profile of absolute and relative homelessness among immigrants, refugees, and refugee claimants in the GVRD. Vancouver: Multilingual Orientation Service Association for Immigrant Communities.

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